- Learning theory

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style="font-family:arial,sans-serif; font-size:medium">The purpose of this training was the assimilation of knowledge and their subsequent application in practice. Compared with dogmatic, explanatory and illustrative training requires a deeper mental activity from the student, but in general it is passive and contemplative learning, in which the main task of the teacher is to present the material in such a way that the students understand and understand it. Explanatory illustrative learning today is the foundation of the traditional school. It saves time spent on the assimilation of knowledge, but does not contribute to the development of independence, initiative and creativity.

In the XIX century. developmental education begins to take shape, the appearance of which is associated with the name of “the teacher of German teachers” A. Disterweg. The main goal of developmental education is to prepare the student for self-mastering of knowledge, for the search for truth, for independence of judgment in everyday life. Although the idea of ​​organizing an independent search for truth by a student is already traced in the Socratic conversation, it was Disterweg who first formulated the rules of developmental education. He considered the developmental form of learning to be the most effective, assessing its capabilities much higher than explanatory and illustrative learning (his statement “A bad teacher gives truth, and a good one teaches it to find.” , ideas about the possibilities of developmental education have been significantly expanded thanks to the concept introduced by LS Vygotsky “zone of proximal development” (see. Fig. 4.12).

Fig. 4.12. Zone of proximal development

The basis of developmental learning is productive (that is, not reproductive, reproducing, as in explanatory-illustrative learning, but searching, creative) activity of students, carried out in the “zone of proximal development”. The teacher does not just transmit knowledge, he organizes the search for students of new knowledge, activates the memory, perception, imagination, thinking of students. During developmental training, the teacher must be open to perception and discussion of various points of view, presented by students in various forms: in reports, comments and evidence, in dialogue, in discussion.

Another type of training - programmed training - appeared in the 1950-1950s. Its founder is an American psychologist B. Skinner. Programmed learning is based on a cybernetic approach, according to which ...

- learning is considered as a complex dynamic system;

- the system is controlled by sending commands to the student (directly by the teacher or using technical means) and receiving feedback (i.e., information on the progress of training);

- Information obtained through feedback is assessed by the teacher (assessment) and the student himself (self-assessment).

Principles of programmed learning:

• submission of information in small easily digestible doses;

• setting a verification task to monitor and evaluate the assimilation of each dose of information;

• submitting a response for self-control;

• formulation of further instructions depending on the correctness of the answer.

In programmed training, two structural methods of program construction are used: linear and branched. Under the linear program, students work on all portions of educational information as they become available. An extensive program implies that the student chooses an individual path to mastering complete educational information.

The types of training that exist for quite a long time were formed as a system of interrelated forms, methods, techniques and means of training.

The training system is a holistic unity of interrelated and interacting forms, means, methods and techniques of organizing the educational process.

Class-less and lecture-seminar learning systems with a history of more than 400 years are most common in the world today. And although in the XIX-XX centuries. the very well-known Bell-Lancaster, Batavian, Mannheim systems were created, as well as training systems according to the project method, according to Dalton-Plan, Trump's plan, etc., yet they were not as widely used as class-time and lecture-seminar.

Finally, in addition to the generally accepted educational systems, there are authoring systems created on the basis of the original idea or the author's concept.

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Classroom learning system

In the world, the most common class-learning system received. Her invention in the XVII century made a real revolution in education, allowed one teacher to train simultaneously a significant number of children in a quality manner. The idea of ​​such an organization of the educational process was first implemented by I. Sturm, and he developed its theoretical foundations and embodied Ya.A. Comenius. Since then, it has been repeatedly attempted to modernize it, but the main features of the class-less organization of education have survived to this day.

Signs of the class-study system of training:

- class (constant for the entire time of study the composition of students of about the same age and level of preparedness);

- training planning (the class works according to a single plan);

- a lesson (the learning process is carried out in the lessons - interconnected for the duration of the parts of the overall training system);

- monism (in the lesson one subject is studied by all children);

- the schedule (the established alternation of lessons of different subjects and changes for rest);

- pedagogical management (the learning process is managed by the teacher);

- the variability of activities (during the lesson the teacher organizes various types of cognitive activity of students).

The main advantages of the class-less system are its comparative cheapness and rather high quality of results in mass practice. Advantages are achieved thanks to the precise organization of the educational process, ensuring its orderliness and relative ease of managing it, thanks to the systematic and sequential training, the constant interaction of students with the teacher and each other in the learning process. However, the class-lesson system, as compared to individual training, has several disadvantages, for example: the teacher has to focus mainly on the “average” student, and the student - to work in the classroom at a single pace for all. This circumstance has caused numerous attempts to improve it, which continues in our time.

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Lecture and seminar system of training

Lecture and seminar system of education is traditional for universities. Its development begins with the appearance of the first universities.

The first mentions of the lecture as the main form of education in medieval universities belong to the XII - XIII centuries. Initially, the lecture consisted in reading the text (before the books became a publicly accessible source of information, mass readings were considered the most effective and cheap way of disseminating “book knowledge”). The reading was accompanied by comments, explanations from the teacher. Over time, the presentation of the material at the lectures became freer, the professors tried not only to read other people's texts, but to present the lecture material in free form, to include in it own conclusions, the results of new research, not yet described in books.

A modern lecture is conducted by a teacher who has high qualifications in this scientific field (professor or assistant professor). The basis of the content of educational material is not only educational literature, but also scientific publications, materials of the latest research, as well as current events in scientific and public life. In the organization of lectures, various methods, techniques and teaching aids are used to better identify the properties of the objects and phenomena under consideration, systematize theoretical information, and assist students in their independent cognitive activity. Thus, today the expression “to give a lecture” is just a steady turn of speech, since in fact qualified teachers have long since gone from simply reading texts throughout the entire lecture lesson.

Along with lectures, debates were held in medieval universities - forms of discussion, scientific debate (usually on philosophical and theological topics). It was believed that by participating in disputes, students sharpen the mind and improve knowledge. Discussion of theoretical and applied issues in disputes can be considered a prototype of modern seminars .

If to compare with the medieval dispute, the seminar is a more universal form. At the seminar, students make presentations and reports, ask each other questions, participate in the discussion of scientific and practical aspects of the material studied. In addition, at the seminar, the teacher can organize a discussion, conduct monitoring, clarify incomprehensible or controversial issues, use various ways to enhance the cognitive activity of students (brainstorming, business game, various types of group work, etc.).

In contrast to the lesson, the seminar assumes a much greater autonomy of students. For example, students choose and structure the material for the report themselves, using various sources (the teacher only recommends sources and gives advice).

A lecture can be held immediately in a large audience (100 or more people) for a whole stream of students. All students studying this discipline or its section can be combined in the stream, even if they are studying in different specialties. The seminar is held in an academic group (usually 15-25 people) or a subgroup (if the group is large or for the development of the material individualization of training is necessary).

The lecture and seminar system implements the continuity between the material studied in lectures and seminars, as well as other general teaching principles of learning. Наряду с лекциями и семинарами, лекционно-семинарская система обучения может включать в себя практические занятия, лабораторные работы и другие виды учебных занятий.

Особенности лекционно-семинарской системы, в сравнении с классно-урочной, наглядно представлены на рис. 4.13 (отличия изображены другим цветом; условные сокращения: УЗ - учебное занятие; УПД - учебно-познавательная деятельность).

Рис.4.13. Сравнение классно-урочной и лекционно-семинарской систем обучения

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Разнообразие систем обучения

Белл-ланкастерская система обучения

In the late XVIII - early XIX centuries. in England, industry developed rapidly. At the same time for industrial enterprises constantly lacked skilled workers and employees. The problem was found by priest Andrew Bell (1753 - 1832) and teacher Joseph Lancaster (1776 or 1778 - 1838), who independently suggested a similar idea of ​​learning organization (they were at that time in different parts of the world: Lancaster - in England and Bell in India, which then was an English colony). The training system they had created was named Bell-Lancaster in their honor.

Both sought to come up with how to teach many people at the same time. By that time, the class-lesson system had long been known in Europe, however, the need for competent workers was so acute that even class-study instruction did not allow it to be satisfied quickly enough, because there were very few teachers too. Therefore, Bell and Lancaster offered to teach “stepwise”, combining the work of students under the guidance of a teacher with mutual learning .

This was implemented as follows. In the first half of the school day, the teacher worked with a group of senior or most capable students (they were called monitors ), and in the afternoon, these students taught others what they had learned from the teacher. Each monitor was assigned a dozen students. While the monitors worked with the majority of students, the teacher carried out general management: he watched the course of classes and helped if someone from the monitors could not cope himself.

Of course, with the Bell-Lancaster organization of the educational process, the quality of education was generally low. Therefore, she had many opponents, she was criticized by IG. Pestalozzi - the largest authority in the pedagogy of the time. But according to the Bell and Lancaster system, one teacher could train three hundred people of different ages at once (300 people were considered the norm, and more).

At the beginning of the XIX century, the Bell-Lancaster system was widely used in France, Belgium, as well as in North America and in the English colonies, as a simple and cheap way of spreading literacy and the Christian religion. In Russia, the bell-Lancaster system used the Decembrists to train peasants and soldiers (MF Orlov, VF Raevsky, and others). However, she has not received such a serious and long-term development as a class-less system.

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Mannheim education system

At the end of the XIX century in developed European countries, the main system of education was class-time. However, it was at this time that teachers began to seriously think about how to overcome its main drawback caused by the work of the entire class at one pace - the focus of the educational process on the average student. Among the options for the modernization of class-lesson training at this time, the Mannheim and Batavian systems are most known.

The Mannheim education system appeared in Germany (the city of Mannheim). Its founder is Josef Zikkinger (1858 - 1930), who proposed dividing pupils of public (primary) schools into classes not only by age and level of preparedness, obtained at the previous stage of training (as in the classical class-lesson system), but also by abilities . This idea was realized in the reform of the public schools of Mannheim carried out by him.

According to Zikkinger, four types of classes were created at school:

- classes for children with ordinary abilities;

- classes for capable children, designed for an increased level of education (with the study of foreign languages, to prepare for the further transition to secondary school, etc.);

- classes for low-performing students;

- classes for mentally retarded students.

Education in these classes was based on the class-lesson system, taking into account the general features of the whole class. This made it possible not to reform a well-functioning system, maintaining a single learning pace, while significantly increasing its effectiveness due to the fact that as a result of special selection all students in the class were “average” (those who differed from the average level were determined to another class, where they also became “average”).

Critics of the Mannheim system noted its following shortcomings.

1. The unreliability of methods for selecting children for training in different types of classes. Pupils were divided into classes based on teacher observations, psychometric studies, and exams. Given that the method of observation is very subjective, and the psychometric techniques were then imperfect, there was a high probability of an erroneous assessment of the abilities of the child.

2. Securing the student status corresponding to the class in which he was in the selection. It was believed that children, depending on their success, could be transferred to a different type of class, but in fact the translation procedure was not developed. This led to the fact that the child, hitting a particular type of class, remained in the same class until the end of training.

However, these shortcomings were overcome in the process of further development of the Mannheim system: more objective methods of student selection appeared, the reliability of psychometric research increased, pedagogical and legal aspects of transferring students to other types of classes were developed based on their academic achievements.

At present, elements of the Magneimsky system are present in various systems of differentiated education (for example, specialized classes and correction classes in modern schools, the division of classes into groups for learning different foreign languages).

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Batavian training system

In 1898, in the town of Batavia (USA, New York), the local school was so crowded that 53 students were enrolled in one of the classes. Because of the numerous immigrants and immigrants, this was a typical problem of American schools of the late XIX - early XX centuries. The situation was complicated by the heterogeneity of the composition of students, among whom were representatives of different cultures, nationalities and religious denominations. The situation in the provincial Batavia was hardly the worst, but it was here that school inspector John Kennedy began to use the new training system, which he described in 1914 in his book The Batavian System of Individual Instructions .

In the Batavian system, the learning process is divided into two parts:

1) lessons taught with the whole class;

2) individual lessons (assisting those who are lagging behind in their studies or working with capable students who are ahead of their classmates in their development).

In other words, in Batavia, classroom-study training was supplemented by individual lessons, which were also conducted not on a case-by-case basis, but as part of a general system of academic work, where both parts became one.

To work with those lagging behind in overcrowded classes, several other teachers were invited to the school, who became assistant teachers leading the lessons. In the implementation of individual work with the lagging behind, the teacher or his assistant was guided by three rules:

1) not to inform the student of new knowledge, but to keep track of what he knows;

2) not to do educational tasks for the student, but to see what he is doing;

3) do not advance the material studied in the lesson.

In classes with normal occupancy, there could be one teacher who divided his working time between teaching lessons and individual lessons. According to the plan of J. Kennedy, the teacher spent about five lessons a week with the class, and the rest of the time he carried out individual counseling for the students.

These innovations have greatly improved the learning process. In the Batavian system of training, a lagging student could work at a pace more convenient for himself, overcoming the lag due to individual lessons. Teachers now did not have to “break apart” in overcrowded classes. In addition, it turned out that such an organization of educational and cognitive activity better contributes to the development of the individual qualities of the child.

The Batavian education system showed high efficiency at the beginning of the 20th century, however, the idea of ​​combining lessons with individual lessons is not outdated even today, it finds application in many modern learning technologies.

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Project learning system

The project training system originated in the USA at the end of the 19th - early 20th centuries. (Perhaps, today its second name is more often used: the method of projects ).

The exact date of commencement of the application of project training is not easy to establish
Its founders are often referred to as American teachers John Dewey (the project method implements “instrumental pedagogy” developed by J. Dewey) and William H. Kilpatrick (he owns the first detailed description of this training system).

The key idea of ​​the project training system is to ensure greater independence of students in the educational process.

For this purpose, the practical activity of students was organized without the use of class-less study forms. Practical activities were carried out within the framework of educational projects, which were a complex of actions: pupils themselves had to set a goal, plan and carry out work related to the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. Educational and cognitive activity was built around projects, and not around a system of training sessions or a single curriculum.

Initially, the themes of the projects were determined only by the industrial or domestic purpose of the acquired knowledge and skills. Subsequently, the projects became more diverse, among them the following types:

- projects that serve the manufacture of something;

- projects in which something is spent or can be acquired;

- projects aimed at solving problems;

- projects focused on the acquisition of knowledge.

The system of project training as an alternative to the class-less system did not stand the test of time. And the reason for this was the same as that of the dalton-plan: the decline in the role of the teacher and the lack of a detailed curriculum turned into a deterioration in the results of training and education. However, the very idea of ​​organizing educational project work for the development of students' cognitive independence has been successfully applied to this day. It is implemented in the project-based learning technology integrated into the classroom system (for example, in one lesson the development of project assignments takes place, in the other - project protection, and the gap between these lessons is developed by the students). In addition, project training is used in the organization of extracurricular work.

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Dalton Plan Training System

In 1905, a system of individualized education appeared, the author of which is the American teacher, Elena Parkhurst . A new way of planning and organizing the educational process was called the Dalton Plan , as it was first used in schools in Dalton, Massachusetts. Other Dalton-plan titles: laboratory system, workshop system - speak for themselves. The organization of the educational process proposed by E. Parkhurst immediately caught the eye of the main difference from the class-lesson system: the main educational work was carried out not in the classroom during the lesson, but individually in laboratories, workshops, classrooms, libraries.

The purpose of training according to Dalton-plan was the organization of individual study work with maximum consideration for the characteristics of each student.

In the dalton-plan there was no explanation for the teacher of the new material. The role of the teacher was to organize the work of students and provide them with the necessary assistance.

The class as a group of students was maintained, but there were no lessons in the usual sense. Collective work with the participation of the entire class was given only one hour a day, the rest of the time the children had to do individually, completing tasks developed by the teacher. For this, students' workplaces were staffed with the necessary teaching aids, instructions for studying theoretical material and fulfilling educational tasks.

There was no general lesson plan. The training programs were divided into a number of tasks by months with an indication of the timing of their implementation.

Accounting for the implementation of educational tasks was carried out in individual student cards and a summary table of the class.

The desire to individualize the learning process, of course, refers to the main advantages of learning according to the Dalton Plan. This made the new learning system very popular all over the world. For its implementation, many methodological techniques have been developed, which are still used today to individualize the educational process and enhance learning and cognitive activity. The Dalton Plan became the basis for the development of a number of other training systems, such as the brigade-laboratory method.

However, learning from Dalton-plan also revealed deficiencies that were caused by the decline in the role of the teacher and the student team in the educational process and led to a decrease in the level of training. This led to the fact that the popularity of Dalton-plan after two decades of its active distribution began to decline.

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Brigade-laboratory learning system

In Soviet schools in the 1920s. The teaching system, called the brigade-laboratory method or the brigade-laboratory training system, has become popular.

The team lab method was a variation of the Dalton Plan. Its peculiarity was the combination of the collective work of the whole class with brigade and individual work. The brigade was called part of the class - a group of several people. The brigade form was not envisaged in the dalton-plan, which was the main difference between the brigade-laboratory system of training and the training according to the dalton-plan.

When using a brigade-laboratory system of training in general classes, work was planned, tasks that were distributed among the teams were discussed, and deadlines and a mandatory minimum of work were set. Then each team worked on the assignment for which the leader, the brigadier, reported to the teacher.

This training system had the same drawbacks as the Dalton Plan: reducing the role of the teacher in explaining the new material led to a decrease in the level of student training. In addition, the brigade form of work was often used not in addition to the individual, but instead, which had a bad effect on students' personal responsibility (one person could do the training task, and the rest could get marks without doing any work).

As a result, in the early 1930s. USSR schools again switched to the "pre-revolutionary" class-study system of education, and the use of the brigade-laboratory method was limited.

At present, the Russian schools have preserved elements of brigade-laboratory training: in class, brigade uniform is used to organize group work for students, and the brigade-laboratory method is used in extracurricular work.

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Trump's plan learning system

Training under the Trump plan became widespread in the 50s – 60s of the 20th century. Its author is an American professor Lloyd Trump, who offered to teach schoolchildren in a system that was an original modification of the lecture-seminar system.

Lecture and seminar system is traditionally used in universities and allows you to combine classes in large classrooms (100 or more people) with classes in small groups (10-25 people).
For school, it was adapted as follows. All study time was divided into three types of academic work.

1. Classes with large groups - lectures that were read at once for 100-150 people by the most qualified teachers using modern technical means. 40% of study time was devoted to these classes.

2. Classes in small groups (10-15 people) were devoted to a deeper study of individual topics. The knowledge gained at the lecture deepened and the ability to put it into practice was acquired. In small groups, various forms of organization of educational activities were used: seminars, discussions, workshops. Classes in small groups were conducted by ordinary teachers or their assistants from among the students or the best students. These classes took up 20% of the study time.

3. Individual work in laboratories, workshops, specially equipped classrooms, libraries, etc. It was also conducted by ordinary teachers or their assistants. Individual work was given 40% of the total training time.

The introduction to the school plan of Trump abolished the classroom system. The composition of small groups is constantly changing, depending on the interests of students. In the choice of individual work, the student was also given freedom.

According to Trump's plan, his system was to organize individual training at a high scientific and theoretical level (this was just what was lacking in other popular American training systems: the Dalton Plan and the project method). However, in the practical implementation of the level of scientific knowledge, given in lectures, often did not find further continuation in other classes. Freedom of students in choosing the content of education and methods of learning activities led to the fact that many students could not decide in their academic interests, which negatively affected the quality of education. Therefore, Trump's plan did not take root in the world practice of mass schools. Separate experimental schools are now working on this system, and only some of its elements are fixed in the mass practice of teaching (for example, holding non-standard lessons in the form of lectures and seminars, the introduction of a lecture and seminar system in senior specialized classes as a way of preparing for university studies).

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Author's training systems

Any author's training system is based on the original idea, the author's concept, which has significant differences from mass practice. In contrast to the learning systems discussed above, the authoring systems are not only associated with a specific name (the names of many developers of mass learning systems are also known), but also reflect a unique author's experience, personal characteristics of the teacher-author, the specificity of specific conditions of use. Therefore, authoring systems, as a rule, are difficult to accurately copy and replicate. However, the essential features of a particular authoring system often become the basis for creating new teaching systems in mass practice.

For example, the system of class-lesson training, applied by I. Sturm in the middle of the XVI century. in the Strasbourg Protestant gymnasium, and today can be called the author, because it has not been developed in mass pedagogical practice in the form in which it was created (namely, as a system of academic education in Latin). But the classroom system existing in our time was originally developed by Ya.A. Comenius not as an author, but as a mass-oriented school, open to the enrichment of new ideas and development through the experience of many teachers. This turned out to be possible, since Comenius accompanied her with a deep scientific substantiation, revealed the wealth of her capabilities and prepared the educational books and guidelines for teachers necessary for its implementation.

According to the degree of localization of use, the author’s learning systems can be divided into ...

• author's general didactic systems - not localized in one subject area, which are used in teaching various subjects (for example, the well-known systems of V. F. Shatalov and S. N. Lysenkova);

• private subject authoring systems operating within the framework of teaching one school subject or one educational field (for example, the educational systems of E.N. Il'ina and B.S. Dykhanova are designed exclusively for teaching literature, their originality manifests itself in new approaches to the content of education, methods and means specific to this particular subject).

According to the quantitative basis (scale, the number of authors and the participants involved in the pedagogical process) ...

• individual authoring systems - implemented in the individual activities of a teacher (examples of such systems may be the above authoring systems);

• authoring systems implemented by the teaching staff (the most illustrative examples of such systems are the author’s schools).

Author's schools are educational institutions whose activities are based on original (author's) ideas and technologies and represent a new educational practice (GK Selevko). The novelty of the author's ideas and technologies may lie in the new approaches to the principles and forms of organization of education, in the originality of the variable part of the school curriculum, in the diversity of after-school education, etc.

Common features of copyright schools:

• innovation (the presence of the original author's ideas relating to changes in the pedagogical process);

• alternativeness (difference of any components of the educational process from the traditional ones adopted in the mass school;

• conceptuality (awareness and use in the author's model of the educational process of scientific grounds);

• systematic and comprehensive pedagogical process (not separate isolated innovations, but a single system of innovations in a given school);

• socio-pedagogical expediency (compliance of school goals with the requirements of society);

• reality and efficiency (the possibility of obtaining good results in real-world conditions).

The author’s schools may include the experience of a number of innovative teachers. Thus, the pedagogical staff of the secondary school of Azov, under the leadership of M.P. Shchetinina significantly changed the educational process, introducing new forms of organizing educational and cognitive activity of children into it, implementing a system of classes of interest in the second half of the school day, distributing the load on schoolchildren during the day and week according to the level of complexity of school subjects. The school practiced personal assignments for each student, student self-management became widespread. M.P. Schetinin introduced into teaching practice the “immersion method”, when the functions of the teacher, in whole or in part, were transferred to specially trained pupils - “consultants”.

Another example of the author's school is the school of adaptive education (adaptive school), theoretically grounded and implemented on the basis of the 109th school of the city of Moscow, E.A. Yamburg An adaptive school is designed for both ordinary and gifted children, as well as for children who require correctional and developmental education (the essence of the name “adaptive” is that the school “adapts” to the characteristics of different students and helps them to adapt to school, to the organization of training and extracurricular school life).

Adaptation of the school to the child is achieved by the system of differentiation of the educational process, which provides for a variety of levels and options for the content of education. A variety of adaptive school educational programs are based on state educational standards. The idea of ​​differentiation (separation) of training according to the level of development of students is implemented in the form of three training streams, “trajectories”:

1) the trajectory of the educational standard;

2) the trajectory of an advanced (lyceum-gymnasium) education;

3) the trajectory of compensatory education (for children in need of correction).

All trajectories are built vertically from the first to the last year of study. Adaptation of a child to school is ensured by recognition of his subject, work in close contact with his family, a complex of socio-economic and psychological and pedagogical support of the family and childhood.

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Control questions and tasks on the topic "Theory of Education"

1. What is the subject of didactics?

2. What is the bilateral nature of the educational process?

3. What is the difference between learning and cognitive activity from “just learning” and “just cognitive”?

4. Prove the need to implement in training its basic functions: educational, educational and developmental.

5. What are the patterns of the educational process?

6. Name the principles of learning.

7. How are the laws and principles of education related?

8. What is the common feature of modern didactic concepts?

9. Compare among themselves the various didactic concepts, highlighting their differences from each other.

10. What is a government educational standard called ?

11. How do the concepts of method, method, means and form of education relate to each other?

12. What teaching methods are distinguished by the nature of learning and cognitive activity?

13. What teaching methods are distinguished by the source of training?

14. What groups can the learning tools be divided into?

15. Give examples of the relationship of method, method and means of training.

16. What forms of organization of training classes do you know?

17. What are the main forms of organization of educational activities used in the training session?

18. What are the similarities and differences between the class-lesson and lecture-seminar learning systems?

19. Give examples of different types of training.

20. Highlight features of the Bell-Lancaster, Mannheim and Batavian training systems.

21. What is the general lack of training for dalton-plan, project and brigade-laboratory training?

Продолжение:

Часть 1 Learning theory
Часть 2 - Learning theory
Часть 3 - Learning theory