Lecture
In Russia, and in world practice, there is still no holistic scientific theory of organization. Our contemporary Academician A.I. Berg pointed out the inferiority of the absence of a holistic organizational science. He considered that, due to the lack of integrity of organizational science, the efficiency of the most "backward", which went down in history, was 8% (0.08), which means: out of every 100 kg of coal abandoned in the furnace of the locomotive, only 8 kg went for useful traction, the rest 92kg "flew into the pipe" (the term "flew into the pipe" became a general assessment of low-value, low-efficiency activities). The efficiency of 4% (0.04) for public production means: if one million rubles are invested in the development of production, then only 40 thousand will benefit, and the remaining 960 thousand rubles will “fly into the pipe”.
Since today in world practice there is no holistic scientific theory of organization, it is necessary to try to formulate its subject, elements of organization theory, providing objective conditions for their organization and controllability, logic of the structure-forming model of organization theory.
The emergence of such generalized sciences and theories as A. Bogdanov’s “general organizational science (tectology)”, L. von Bertalanffy’s “general system theory”, N. Wiener’s “cybernetics” and others still did not lead to the development of a unified organizational theory based on knowledge of the universal laws of system organization. None of the above constructions can claim to be the title of a general organizational theory, since each of them reveals only one or several sides of the organization of systems.
In A. Bogdanov, the principles of organization put forward by him almost all rely on the mechanical (physical) idea of the essence of the organization and therefore are reduced to the laws of the mechanical interaction of elements. The most important part of the general theory of L. Bertalanffy - the theory of open systems is also transferred from physics and is essentially a physical theory, not a theory of the organization of systems.
M. I. Setrov rightly notes that the definition of "system" through the concept of "element" is extremely abstract, while the concept of organization is highly meaningful []. This circumstance is also indicated by R. Ashby, noting that the great content of this concept makes it difficult to define it [].
The definition of an organization through the interaction of its parts, its elements is easily explained: without the interaction of parts, elements, there is no organization.
Even in the intuitive understanding of the organization reflects the moment of unity of the expediency of existing parts, which in an organized object act as structural units. Structural subdivisions are such only because they realize a certain function in relation to the whole organization, their operation is functional and therefore expedient.
At the same time, a function can be defined as the relation of a part to a whole, in which existence itself or some kind of manifestation of a part ensures the existence or some form of manifestation of a whole. Thus, the functional approach to the system reflects the expediency of its organization.
The methodological basis of the theory of organization is: the systems approach * , the general theory of systems and cybernetics * . Note that the theory of organization is created within the framework of the fundamental principles of the systems approach (see § 1.3.1.).
The system approach * is a methodology for analyzing and synthesizing objects of nature, science and technology, organizational and production systems.
For concepts put forward by the theory of organization, it is important to recognize that the concept of organization reflects the structure and properties of real objects. Representing the object of design or improvement as a system with given goals and desired properties, we form its possible schemes, plans and structures. Therefore, the category of the system is a scientific tool for the study of objects, processes and their management.
As applied to the object of organization theory, a system is understood as a set or combination of interrelated elements or parts that form a complex whole, a certain order of interacting to achieve a given goal.
Certain relations are established between the elements (parts) in the system, determining one or another of its properties. These relationships and properties that characterize the relationship, orderliness and interaction of these elements are a concrete manifestation of the main principle of the systems approach - the integrity of the system. This principle meets the basic requirements of materialist dialectics on the consideration of both material objects and the processes of thinking reflecting them in dialectical unity, interconnection and dynamic interaction.
The logic of the structure-forming model of organization theory. Let us dwell on aspects of a systems approach that allow one to solve scientifically sound problems of optimizing the structure and functioning of large and complex systems. Based on the essence of the concept of "system" (interconnection, integrity and interaction), there are three defining aspects of the systems approach: functional, elemental and organizational, forming the logic of the structure-forming model of organization theory (Fig. 2.1).
The functional aspect involves the study and definition of the functions to be performed by the system and its corresponding parts. For functional parts, they determine the composition of the processes, operations, or tasks they perform, and ultimately form the logic of the system, i.e. the functional approach to the system reflects the expediency of its organization.
The elemental aspect involves the study and construction of an object as a system and the establishment of its elemental composition, which is necessary to purposefully ensure the integrity of the system during its design.
The organizational aspect sets the structure of the system, a clear and precise goal for each structural part of the latter and implements the tasks prescribed by the functional purpose. The presence of a structure (organization) that combines the elements into a single holistic entity, defining the rules and direction of interaction between the elements of an object, is a necessary condition for the existence of the system.
Ensuring the creation and improvement of the system and its parts of the relationship and unity of these three aspects of the system approach allows you to streamline and simplify the organization and management of the system, to achieve the integrity of the parts and their acquisition of qualitatively new properties. For the technical solution of these tasks, methods of decomposition, aggregation, creation of an independent (block) structure, etc. can be applied.
When building systems, processes and their models it is required:
The structural information model of the controlled and controlling part of the system is shown in Figure 2.1. The sequence of interrelationships of parts at the design stage of a new system (object) or at the stages of planning and managing the existing system is shown in the diagram in figures.
Figure 2.1. Structural information system model 
- built-in regulators
Other aspects of the systems approach are also possible: integrative, involving the study of the main factors shaping the system and its functioning; communication, which consists in considering the external relations of the system and the factors that have a disturbing effect on it.
It is important, however, to emphasize that, regardless of the option chosen for the division of the systems approach, the set of aspects must be approached as a system. Otherwise, for example, in the absolutization of the role of one of them, the integrity and unity of the systems approach itself may be violated.
With regard to the organizational aspect, it should be borne in mind that any organization is usually considered in two main aspects: spatial and temporal. From an organizational point of view, this means the allocation in the system of two types of structure: extensive and intensive. "Extensive structure exists (expanded) in space, intensive - in time. Organization * is the unity of extensive and intensive structures, and outside this unity it does not exist. However, we can say from the" genetic principle "that is most important and in a certain sense" the primary "among them is the extensive structure of systems. Indeed, before it begins to change in time, that is, to show dynamism, the system must emerge as something stable and, moreover, existing in space." []
Stable links of coexisting objects, that is, the extensive structure is a set of functional links. Intense structure is formed by causal, genetic relationships.
To describe the extensive structure, spatial decomposition is used, i.e. isolate a hierarchical network of connections of elements of the system or its relations with other systems that are its "environment". The network of stable connections of elements of the system reflects its internal structure (morphology), and its connections with the “environment” reflect the external structure. The morphological structure of the system is three-level: the first level forms the technological, the second - the production, and the third - the organizational structure. The interaction of the elements of the technological structure has a power (energy) character, the production structure is a network of flows of objects of labor or products, and the organizational structure is a network of primarily information flows.
Elements of organization theory and approaches to its definition. One of the drawbacks of the existing organization theory is a high degree of abstractness and, therefore, insufficient content of the concepts used for these purposes, the lack of transitional concepts for analyzing the organization of specific systems.
Consider the fundamental issues of modern organization theory in relation to production systems (PS).
The organization of production systems is a definite quantitative and qualitative combination and connection in space and in time of its personal and material elements that ensure its economic and social efficiency.
The spatial combination of the elements of the production system is reflected in the various options and forms for constructing the structure of the system, its parts and the elements forming them.
The time combination and connection of all parts and elements of the PS consists in the organization of actions coordinated in time due to the rational solution of the complex set of tasks of the time planning system.
An organization can be represented as a set of interrelated elements that form a single whole and interact in a certain way to achieve a given goal. Elements of the organization are:
Functional areas are the main activities, united by a specific goal and the homogeneity of the interrelated tasks to be performed, the implementation of which is necessary to achieve the goals of the organization.
Functional areas * act as management objects and define their structure. Typical functional areas are: marketing; production; R & D; finance; staff * .
Table 2 . one .
Examples of key objectives for functional areas of an organization
Functional area | Specific purpose |
Marketing | Securing market leadership |
Production | Achievement of the highest labor productivity in production |
R & D | Ensuring competitiveness and continuous innovation |
Finance | Maintaining the required level of financial results |
Staff | Formation of a strong organization culture, development of creative potential and increase in the level of satisfaction and interest of employees |
The main elements of the production process are: objects of labor, means of labor and labor itself.
The main controls are:
Defining features of large and complex systems . From the standpoint of system concepts, the object of our study is social organizational and production systems that belong to the category of large and complex second-rank systems that are part of a wider system of the first rank — society.
Characteristic features of the large and complex systems we are considering are:
Note that the second, third and fourth signs characterize the complexity, and all the others - the scale (dimension) of the system.
These signs of large and complex systems must be taken into account in the formation and construction of newly created production and organizational systems and their units (parts), as well as to act as criteria in analyzing the correctness of the construction and operation of existing systems.
The study of the theory of organization is intended to qualitatively change the approach to organizations, to understanding and regulating the processes occurring in them and ultimately - their adaptation to the conditions of market relations.
Starting a comprehensive study of organizations, it is necessary to realize that there are fundamental differences in the interpretation of the term "organization".
The concept of "organization" has three different interpretations: as an object (structure), as a process and as a property * .
Organization as an object of management, i.e. the concept of "organization" means the unification of jointly working people whose activities are consciously coordinated to achieve certain common goals. In this case, the organization is identified with the concept of structure, ie, the composition of the system and its various hierarchies.
An organization is defined as a process or activity of an organizer or manager, that is, an organization is considered as one of the management functions aimed at acquiring new properties and characteristics by an object.
An organization is treated as a property of the system - characterizing the degree of ordering or organization (order) of the system, for example, the degree of ordering of the movement of material production flows in space and time, or the degree of ordering of relations between people.
Consider the concept of organization as an object of management. It is this understanding that underlies the whole complex of knowledge about the theory of organizations as a scientific discipline.
Organization is what organization theory is.
Organization as an object has an ordered internal structure. It combines diverse connections (physical, technological, economic, legal) and human relations. Organization as an object is an integral complex of interrelated elements (a property of organizational complexity) and a special unity with the external environment. It is characterized by purposeful functioning and development. It is a self-organizing system at all stages of its life cycle.
Traditionally, organization is considered as a means to achieve the goals and objectives of the system.
Of course, such a complex organism as a modern organization cannot be understood, described and comprehensively studied only from the standpoint of its formal structure and decomposition into separate parts.
Другой плодотворный подход - рассматривать организацию как механизм нейтрализации сил , подрывающих сотрудничество персонала. В этом смысле организация минимизирует конфликт * и уменьшает значение индивидуального поведения, отклоняющегося от ценностей, которые организация установила как заслуживающие внимания. Далее организация повышает стабильность в человеческих отношениях, уменьшая их неуверенность относительно характера системы и человеческих ролей, ей соответствующих. В связи с этим организация повышает предсказуемость действий людей, потому что она ограничивает число поведенческих альтернатив, доступных индивидууму. Как указывает Прейстхус (RV Presthus): "Организация определяется как система структурных межличностных отношений: Индивидуумы дифференцированы по авторитету * , статусу и роли, так что в итоге профессиональное взаимодействие предписано: Ожидаемые реакции происходят, в то время как неоднозначность и спонтанность уменьшаются".
В дополнение ко всему этому, организация имеет встроенные гарантии. Помимо предписания допустимых форм поведения для тех, кто соглашается принять их, организация также способна уравновесить влияние действий людей, если они превышают установленные нормы (модели поведения).
Таким образом, наряду со структурным подходом, отражающим преимущественно статику организации, ключевое значение имеет поведенческий угол зрения, нацеленный на выявление динамики организации, ставящий в центр исследований человека, систему отношений между людьми, их компетентность, способности, мотивации к труду и к достижению установленных целей. Людей побуждают объединяться в организации и взаимодействовать в их рамках физические и биологические ограничения, свойственные каждому человеку в отдельности, и цели, достижение которых требует коллективных усилий. Дополняя друг друга, люди складывают свои способности и влияют на поведение организации в целом в интересах повышения её эффективности. Таким образом, основополагающая задача теории организации - изучение влияния индивидуумов и групп людей на функционирование организации и происходящие в ней изменения, на обеспечение эффективной целенаправленной деятельности и получение необходимых результатов.
В условиях бизнеса теория организации приобретает особую актуальность и значимость. Бизнес нуждается в системе связей между функциями; требует стабильности, непрерывности и предсказуемости в действиях внутри системы и внешних контактах.
Очевидно, что бизнес также нуждается в гармоничных отношениях между людьми в процессе их взаимодействия. Другими словами, деловая организация должна быть относительно свободна от разрушительных тенденций, которые могут быть вызваны расходящимися интересами (потребностями). Фундаментом для удовлетворения этих потребностей служит наука управления. Главный элемент этой науки - теория организации, которая обеспечивает основания для управленческих действий в ряде значительных областей бизнеса.
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