1.2 Development of the theory and practice of management

In order to better understand the new and complex social phenomenon that is unfolding before our eyes, as management, it is useful to put it in a certain historical series.

Despite the tremendous importance of revolutionary changes, the development of management is basically an evolutionary process. It is characterized by continuity and focus on the goals, strategy ^* and objectives of the organization. Changing goals and strategy - changing specific tasks - changing organization and methods of management. Unlike all previous ways of managing collective actions, management includes constant updating. The historical periodization of management confirms and shows the dependence of its development on external conditions, and above all on the historical stage of the development of society. This explains the need to consider the evolution of the theory and practice of management and its development prospects.

Despite a certain variety of schools and directions of development of management, four main established schools can be distinguished:

1. School of Scientific Management.
2. Administrative, or classical school.
3. School of human relations and behavioral sciences.
4. Mathematical School of Management.

The interconnection of all schools creates highly efficient management. Each of the schools is like a thread in a control rope, which acquires the highest strength when all the threads are interwoven into one. It should be noted that the elements of all these schools are widely used within the same organization to the present. Modern management ^{* has} absorbed and continues to develop and deepen all the best ideas and achievements of various schools.

School of Scientific Management (1885-1920). The emergence of the school of scientific management is primarily associated with the theoretical and practical management system of F. Taylor (1856-1915), which is its founder. Drawing a parallel, it can be said that as A. Smith's theory gave rise to all branches of political economy, so the Taylor system - to all subsequent management. P. Drucker wrote: " Taylorism is the rock on which we erect our discipline."

F. U. Taylor is a practical engineer and manager who, on the basis of analyzing the content of work and determining its main elements, developed a methodological basis for labor valuation, standardized work operations, introduced scientific approaches to the selection, placement and stimulation of workers. Taylor developed and implemented a complex system of organizational measures: timekeeping ^* , instructional cards, workers' retraining methods, a planning bureau, and the collection of social information. He attached considerable importance to the style of leadership, the correct system of disciplinary sanctions and labor incentives. Labor in his system is the main source of efficiency. A key element of this approach was that people who produced more were rewarded more.

Along with Taylor, the founders of the school of scientific management are Frank and Lilia Gilbert, Henry Gantt and others. The creators of the school of scientific management proceeded from the fact that, using observations, measurements, logic and analysis, it is possible to improve most of the operations of manual labor, to achieve more effective implementation of them. The formation of the school of scientific management was based on three main points that served as the initial principles for the development of management:

1. Rational organization of labor.
2. Development of the formal structure of the organization.
3. Definition of measures for cooperation between the manager and the worker, i.e. the distinction between executive and managerial functions.

The rational organization of labor assumed the replacement of traditional methods of work with a number of rules formed on the basis of the analysis of work, and the subsequent correct placement of workers and their training in optimal work methods.

Scientific management is most closely associated with the work of Frank and Lilia Gilbert, who dealt primarily with the study of physical work in production processes and explored the possibility of increasing output by reducing the effort expended on their production.

Gilbert studied work operations using movie cameras in combination with a microchronometer. Then, using freeze-frames, they analyzed the elements of operations, changed the structure of working operations in order to eliminate unnecessary, unproductive movements, and sought to improve work efficiency.

F. Gilbert, based on the results of his research, wrote books "The ABC of the Scientific Organization of Labor" and "The Study of Movements". Studies of the rationalization of labor of workers conducted by F. Gilbert, provided a threefold increase in labor productivity.

L. Gilbert marked the beginning of the management area, which is now called personnel management. She explored issues such as recruitment, placement and training. Scientific management did not neglect the human factor.

An important contribution of this school was the systematic use of incentives to motivate employees to increase productivity and output. Scientific management also defended the separation of managerial functions of reflection and planning from the actual performance of work. Taylor and his contemporaries actually acknowledged that management work is a particular specialty and that the organization as a whole will benefit if each group of workers focuses on what it does most successfully. This approach contrasted sharply with the old system, in which the workers themselves planned their work.

Taylor's closest student was G. Gantt, who was involved in development in the field of the bonus payment technique, compiled production planning maps (Gantt tape charts), and also contributed to the development of the theory of leadership. The works of Gantt characterize the consciousness of the leading role of the human factor.

Representatives of the school of scientific management mainly devoted their work to what is called production management. She was engaged in improving performance at a level lower than managerial, the so-called non-managerial level.

The concept of scientific management was a turning point. It almost instantly became a subject of general interest. Many branches of business have begun to apply scientific management not only in the United States, but also in England, France and other countries.

In our country, the ideas of scientific management were developed by A. A. Bogdanov, N. A. Vitka, A. K. Gastev, O. A. Yermansky, E. F. Rozmirovich, and many other scholars and practitioners.

A. A. Bogdanov in his work "General Organizational Science" (1913-1917) believed that all types of management in nature, society, and technology have common features. This concept was later developed and reflected in cybernetics.

A. K. Gastev focused his work on rational organization and work culture, laid the foundations for an integrated approach to management theory.

The ideas laid down by the school of scientific management were developed and applied to the management of organizations in general, primarily representatives of the administrative school of management.

Administrative, or classical school of management (1920-1950). Taylor and Gilbert began their careers as simple workers, which undoubtedly influenced their ideas about managing the organization. The creators of the classical school, on the contrary, had direct experience as senior managers in big business. Naturally, their interests were related to the efficiency of the entire organization. The classics tried to determine the general characteristics and patterns of organizations. The development of the administrative school took place in two directions: the rationalization of production and the study of management problems. The goal of this school was to create universal management principles, the implementation of which will necessarily lead to success. Here you can highlight the work of Garrington Emerson (1853-1931), Henri Fayol (1841-1925), Lindoll Urvik (1891-1983), Max Weber (1864-1920), Henry Ford (1863-1947). In our country at the beginning of the 1920s, active research work also began in the field of the scientific organization of labor and management in all branches of the national economy and the state apparatus. Such scientists as Alexey Konstantinovich Gastev (1882-1941) and Platon Mikhailovich Kerzhentsev (1881-1940) made a great contribution to the development of the science of management.

G. Emerson in his main work and "The Twelve Principles of Productivity" (1911) examines and formulates the principles of enterprise management, and justifies them with examples not only of industrial organizations. The concept of productivity, or efficiency, is the main thing that Emerson introduced into the science of management, he first raised the question of production efficiency in a broad sense. Efficiency - the concept introduced by him for the first time, means the most favorable ratio between total costs and economic results. “True performance always gives maximum results under minimal conditions; stress, on the contrary, gives rather large results only under conditions of abnormally severe” [64].

G. Emerson raised and substantiated the question of the need and feasibility of applying an integrated, systematic approach to solving complex, multifaceted practical problems of organizing production management and all activities in general. The management principles formulated by Emerson are:

1. Accurately set ideals or goals to which each manager and his subordinates at all levels of management strive to achieve.
2. Common sense, that is, a common sense approach to the analysis of each new process, taking into account promising goals.
3. Competent advice, i.e. the need for special knowledge and competent advice on all matters related to production and management. Genuinely competent advice can only be collegial.
4. Discipline - the subordination of all members of the team established rules and regulations.
5. Fair treatment of staff.
6. Fast, reliable, complete, accurate and constant accounting, providing the head with the necessary information.
7. Dispatching, ensuring clear operational management ^* of team activities.
8. Standards and schedules to accurately measure all the shortcomings in the organization and reduce the losses they cause.
9. Normalization of conditions, providing a combination of time, conditions and cost, under which the best results are achieved.
10. Rationing operations, suggesting the establishment of time and sequence for each operation.
11. Written standard instructions that provide a clear consolidation of all the rules of work.
12. Reward for productivity, aimed at encouraging the labor of every employee.

Emerson gained fame also thanks to his research staff principle in management. Complementing the linear principle of building an organization with the staff principle, he believed that the staff principle applies not only to military organizations, but also to all types of organizations.

The founder of the classical school of management is the French mining engineer Henri Fayolle, who made an enormous contribution to the science of management. It is not by chance that Americans call A. Fayol the father of management. He developed a general approach to the analysis of the activities of the administration and formulated some strictly binding principles of management.

1. Division of labor. This is a natural occurrence. Its goal is to increase the quantity and quality of production while spending the same effort. This is achieved by reducing the number of goals to which attention and action should be directed. Moreover, the division of labor is applicable not only to technical work. The result of it is the specialization of functions and the separation of powers.
2. Power (authority) and responsibility. Powers are the right to give orders, and responsibility is sanctions - rewards or punishments - accompanying its action. Where there is authority, responsibility arises.
3. Discipline is essentially obedience, diligence, activity, self-control, movement. Discipline involves the implementation and respect for the agreements reached between the organization and its employees.
4. Unity of disposition, or unity of command. An employee may be given two orders regarding an action only by one boss.
5. Unity of leadership, direction. One manager and one program for a set of operations pursuing the same goal. Each group operating under one goal should be united by a single plan and have one leader.
6. The subordination of private, personal interests is common. The interests of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over the interests of a larger organization, up to the interests of the state as a whole.
7. Remuneration of staff is the payment of work performed. It should be fair and, if possible, satisfy both the staff and the organization of both the employer and the employee.
8. Centralization. Like the division of labor, centralization is a natural phenomenon. However, the appropriate degree of centralization varies depending on the specific conditions. The problem of centralization and decentralization is resolved by finding a measure that gives the best overall performance.
9. Hierarchy, or scalar chain. A hierarchy, or a scalar chain, is a series of leadership positions, from the highest to the lowest. A mistake is to avoid a hierarchy without need, but a much bigger mistake is to save it when it can be detrimental to the organization.
10. Order. The formula of the material order is a definite place for every thing and every thing in its place. The social order formula is a definite place for each person and each person in his place. Graphic tables, charts greatly facilitate the establishment and control of both social and material order.
11. Justice. Justice is the result of combining benevolence with justice.
12. The constancy of the staff. High staff turnover is the cause and effect of a poor state of affairs. A mediocre manager who values ​​his place is certainly preferable to an outstanding, talented manager ^* who quickly leaves and does not hold on to his place.
13. Initiative. An initiative is the development of a plan and its successful implementation. Freedom of proposal and implementation is also categorized as an initiative.
14. Unity of staff, or corporate spirit. Harmony, staff unity is a great force in the organization.

Fayolle, who made a huge contribution to management science, believed that the number of management principles was unlimited and a change of state of affairs could lead to a change in the rules. Unlike Taylor, Fayolle denied the necessity of endowing functional workers with administrative rights and for the first time pointed out the need to create headquarters, which should not have the right to lead, but prepare for the future and identify possible ways to improve the organization. Particular attention was paid Fayol drawing up a plan and forecast. The merit of Fayol is also the conclusion that not only engineers and technicians, but also every member of society needs to some degree or other to know the principles of administrative activity.

Entrepreneur, organizer, scientist, Fayol was the first researcher to classify the study of management according to its functional characteristics, such as planning, organization, disposal, coordination, and control.

Fayol’s main contribution to management theory was that he considered management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions.

Fayol concluded that the identity of the administrator is essential for the organization to flourish. Based on this, Fayol has compiled a list of qualities that he believes managers should possess ^* . Among the main qualities required by the manager, he attributed:

1. Health and physical vitality.
2. Mind and intellectual ability.
3. Moral qualities such as perseverance, energy, courage in decision making and responsibility, a sense of duty, and so on.
4. Good general education.
5. Management skills: foresight, the ability to develop a plan of action, organizational skills, the art of dealing with people, the ability to combine and direct the efforts of many people and the ability to control them.
6. General awareness in all essential functions of an enterprise.
7. Genuine competence in the specific activity that characterizes the organization.

On the basis of the work of Fayol in the twenties, the concept of the organizational structure of the company was formulated, between the elements of which certain interrelations are established for the implementation of basic management functions.

If Fayol investigated the functional aspect of management, then Max Weber developed the institutional aspect. His main work "Theory of Society and Economic Organization" (1920) is devoted to the analysis of the problem of leadership and the bureaucratic structure of power in the organization. Вебер выделяет три основных типа организаций в зависимости от характера власти, которой обладает руководитель: харизматический, традиционный и идеальный (или бюрократический).

Харизматический тип организации имеет место тогда, когда руководитель обладает исключительными личными качествами.

Традиционный тип организации возникает из харизматического, когда происходит естественная замена лидера и члены организации по традиции подчиняются руководителю, заменившему прежнего лидера.

Идеальный (бюрократический) тип основан на специальном разделении власти, обеспечивающем руководителю возможность быть лидером в организации.

Особенно подробно Вебер разработал характеристики третьего типа организации. Бюрократический тип организации имеет следующие основные черты:

1. all the activities of the organization are divided into the simplest elementary operations, the execution of which is formally assigned to individual links;
2. Each leader is endowed with formally secured authority and authority, which act only within the organization. The construction should clearly show the principle of hierarchy ^* ;
3. a system of clear rules, instructions and standards defining the working procedure and responsibility of each member of the organization;
4. any head of the organization must maintain the necessary “social distance”, must be impartial in relation to its clients and subordinates, which contributes to an equally fair attitude towards all individuals.
5. it is necessary that each member of the organization should hold a position in accordance with his qualifications and be protected from the possibility of arbitrary dismissal. The system of personnel promotion can be built on the principle of the duration of work, the success of the activity or taking into account both factors.

These characteristics of an ideal (bureaucratic) organization, reviewed by Weber, allowed to focus on certain parameters of the organization and determine the direction of formalization of its activities.

В нашей стране, как уже указывалось, также проводились исследования которые, можно отнести к школе управления. Так, А. А. Богданов в своей работе "Всеобщая организационная наука" (1913-1917) писал, что все виды управления в природе, обществе, технике имеют общие черты. Он пытался создать "особую организационную науку", определить её предмет, законы, основные категории. Ряд понятий, разработанных Богдановым, применяется для построения математических моделей экономических процессов и при решении планово-экономических задач. [ ]

Другой представитель отечественной школы - А. К. Гастев, подчеркивал, что "попытки создания так называемой организационной науки вне связи с конкретными тенденциями машинизированного массового производства неминуемо обрекаются на неудачу". [ ] Основное внимание в своих работах он уделял рациональной организации и культуре труда, заложил основу комплексного подхода к теории управления. П. М. Керженцев понимал научную организацию труда как изучение организационных приемов и определение наиболее рациональных методов организационной работы. Вместе с тем он исследовал только управление людьми, коллективами независимо от сферы их деятельности.

В отечественной литературе немало отводили место разработке принципов управления. Так, во многих работах выделяются 10 следующих принципов:

1. Принцип демократического централизма.
2. Принцип единства политического и хозяйственного руководства.
3. Принцип планового ведения хозяйства.
4. Принцип материального и морального стимулирования труда.
5. Принцип научности управления.
6. Принцип ответственности.
7. Принцип правильного подбора и расстановки кадров.
8. Принцип экономичности и эффективностию.
9. Принцип оптимального сочетания отраслевого и территориального управления.
10. Принцип преемственности хозяйственных решений.

Из приведенных принципов видно, что объективно теория управления развивалась бы параллельно как в нашей стране, так и на Западе, естественно с учетом специфических условий - у нас в условиях командно-административной системы, на Западе в условиях рыночных отношений.

Since the end of the XIX century. бюрократия является важным атрибутом любой крупной организации. Умножение управленческих функций, расширение отделов и возникновение филиалов, возрастание объемов документации и всевозможных расчетов - все это содействовало росту административного персонала. Преимущество бюрократии заключается в создании рациональных структур с широкими возможностями их универсального применения к различным социальным институтам. Хотя бюрократическая форма организации управления нередко и квалифицируется как бесчеловечная и безразличная к человеческим нуждам, она тем не менее представляла ощутимый прогресс в сравнении с куда более жесткой практикой первых фабричных систем, где работник был лишь материалом для эксплуатации. Практическое внедрение принципов управления упорядочивало реализацию власти менеджера над исполнителями, а поэтому в определенной степени и ограничивало ее. Поэтому в этих условиях процесс управления зависел вроде бы не от конкретных людей, а от совокупности формальных принципов управления.

However, a characteristic feature of the bureaucratic structure is its isolation in itself. The development of this structure leads to an increasingly formal and distorted connection of the management system with real economic reality. Bureaucratization in its negative sense is not inevitable. It becomes real only in conditions of monopoly, when economic control over the management apparatus is first of all excluded or weakened. World practice already has experience in blocking the bureaucratization of economic life, increasing the efficiency of management systems.

Так, можно привести систему мер, названную американскими исследователями "адхократией" .Под ней понимаются особые организационные механизмы, создаваемые для решения проблем, которые не могут быстро и эффективно решаться в бюрократической структуре или проваливаются и застревают в этой структуре.

Методы адхократии заключаются, в частности, в отказе от жесткой централизации управления, проведения параллельных исследований и разработок, в организации внутрифирменной конкуренции, децентрализации производства, предоставлении максимальной автономии филиалам и подразделениям.

Характерной особенностью методов является применение разнообразных моральных стимулов, попытка максимального использования человеческого фактора.

Анализ деятельности крупных компаний, использующих политику адхократии, показал следующие особенности. Методы управления в лучших крупных компаниях воспроизводят практику малых фирм: поддержание небольших размеров предприятий и подразделений, простота управления, минимум бюрократических преград; постоянный личный контакт управляющих с персоналом; отсутствие жесткой регламентации в творческой деятельности; формирование чувства единой семьи у всех работающих и др.

Однако с развитием общества происходит постепенный отход от командных методов управления, развиваются непрямые, косвенные формы управления, и проявляется это прежде всего в развитии школы человеческих отношений.

Школа человеческих отношений (1930-1950) и поведенческих наук (1930 - по настоящее время). На рубеже тридцатых годов в США стали формироваться предпосылки, приведшие позже к качественно иной ситуации в менеджменте. В условиях перехода от экстенсивных к интенсивным методам хозяйствования назрела необходимость в поиске новых форм управления, более чутких к человеческому фактору. Определенный прорыв в области менеджмента был сделан на рубеже тридцатых годов, ознаменовавшихся появлением школы человеческих отношений. В её основу положены достижения психологии и социологии (наук о человеческом поведении).

Школа человеческих отношений. Основателем школы человеческих отношений является американский психолог Элтон Мэйо (1880-1949). Мэйо обнаружил, что четко разработанные рабочие операции и хорошая заработная плата ^* не всегда вели к повышению производительности труда, как считали представители школы научного управления. Силы, возникающие в ходе взаимодействия между людьми, могли превзойти и часто превосходили усилия руководителя. Иногда работники реагировали гораздо сильнее на давление со стороны коллег по группе, чем на желание руководства и на материальные стимулы. Позднее исследования, проведенные Абрахамом Маслоу и другими психологами, показали, что мотивами поступков людей являются в основном не экономические силы, как считали сторонники и последователи школы научного управления, а различные потребности, которые могут быть лишь частично и косвенно удовлетворены с помощью денег.

Исследователи этой школы исходили из того, что если руководство проявляет большую заботу о своих работниках, то уровень удовлетворенности у работников возрастает, что естественно ведет к увеличению производительности. И в самом деле, "только человеческие ресурсы способны производить экономические результаты. Все другие ресурсы подчиняются законам механики. Их можно лучше использовать, но их выход никогда не будет больше, чем сумма входов".

Цель сторонников этой школы состояла в том, чтобы попытаться управлять, воздействуя на систему социально-психологических факторов. Школа человеческих отношений явилась попыткой менеджмента рассматривать каждую организацию как социальную систему.

Основоположник этой школы Элтон Мэйо считал, что организация обладает единой социальной структурой. И задача менеджмента состоит в том, чтобы в дополнение к формальным зависимостям между членами организации развивать плодотворные неформальные связи, которые сильно влияют на результаты деятельности. Таким образом, формальная организация ^* дополнялась бы неформальной структурой, которая расценивается как необходимый и существенный компонент эффективной деятельности организации.

Организацию сравнивают с айсбергом, в подводной части которого находятся различные элементы неформальной системы, а в верхней - формальные аспекты организации. Тем самым подчеркивается приоритет этой системы над официально установленными взаимоотношениями в организации, более глубокий определяющий характер социально-психологических характеристик в организации.

Свои выводы Э. Мэйо основывал прежде всего на известных хоуторнских экспериментах, проведенных в рабочих группах на Хоуторнском заводе фирмы "Вестерн Электрик К ^o " (Чикаго) в США в 1924-1936 годах. В общем эти выводы можно представить следующим образом:

1. The development of a worker is determined more by group norms than by his physical capabilities. All norms characterizing certain standards of behavior or a person’s position are supported by group sanctions (for example, the threat of social ostracism). Group norms are essentially unwritten rules governing informal organization.
2. Workers are much more likely to act or make decisions as members of a group than as individuals; their behavior in most cases is determined by group norms.
3. Of particular importance are informal leaders to achieve the goals of the group, establish and maintain group norms. The leader of a group is a person whose activities are most closely aligned with group norms, that is, a person whose behavior is perceived as the one most conducive to achieving the goals of the group.

Based on this, the manager ^* performs two functions: economic and social. The first is aimed at maximizing the goals of the organization, the second is at creating and managing labor associations and groups that work together effectively.

The achievement of Mayo and his followers in the analysis of the informal structure was the proof of the need to expand the boundaries of organizational analysis beyond the official structure.

School of Behavioral Sciences. This school has significantly moved away from the school of human relations. The novelty of this school was in the desire to assist the employee in realizing his potential through the use of the concepts of behavioral sciences for building and managing organizations. The main goal of the school of behavioral sciences is to increase the efficiency of an organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources.

The beginning of a new course of science management put Charles Barnard. His first work he devoted to the problems of cooperation of human activity. Barnard began his construction of a theoretical model of cooperative systems with the individual as a discrete creature. However, each individual does not act alone outside of cooperation and relationships with other people. Individuals are unique, independent, and segregated, while organizations are cooperative. Being independent individuals, people can choose whether to enter them or not into one or another cooperative system.

Preservation of cooperation depends on two conditions: on its effectiveness and on its inherent effectiveness . Performance characterizes the achievement of a cooperative goal and is social in nature, whereas efficiency refers to the satisfaction of individual motives and is personal in nature. The functions of the manager are precisely to ensure the coincidence of the cooperative and individual components of the organization.

Barnard studied the nature of informal organizations, which he viewed as a kind of self-defense of individuals before the expansion of formal organizations: "By informal organization, I mean a collection of personal contacts and interactions, as well as associated groups of people." Informal organization is very vague and almost unstructured. Its main functions include: communication ^* ; maintaining cohesion; strengthening the sense of personal identity, self-respect, independence of choice.

Barnard believed that "the individual is always a strategic factor." It is the efforts made by people that make up the energy of social organizations, but they go into action, only prompted by incentives.

The central role in cooperative systems belongs, according to Barnard, to managers, whose functions include the development of the refined art of decision-making, the elaboration of a communication system, including the organization scheme and the structure of management personnel.

For the first time, researchers of the School of Behavioral Sciences gave a scientific substantiation of the role of motives and human needs in his work activity. They considered motives as the main indicator of the attitude of people to work. The structure of motives acts as an internal characteristic of labor. Positive motivation ^* - the main factor in the success of the work. In theory of management, the study of motivation is a special direction. Significant contributions to this area were made by A. Maslow, F. Herzberg, Douglas Mac Gregor.

Abraham Maslow developed a theory of needs, known as the "pyramid of needs." In accordance with the teachings of Maslow, a person has a complex structure of hierarchically located needs, and management in accordance with this should be based on identifying the needs of the worker and using appropriate methods of motivation.

Mathematical School of Management (1950 - to present). The mathematical management school (sometimes referred to as the theory of quantitative management methods) was born in the early 40s, and above all in the management of troops during World War II. Then the tested quantitative methods were transferred to the management of civil organizations. Many companies began to use some mathematical tools when hiring employees, arranging equipment in production facilities, planning warehouse operations. That is, mathematics was applied in some areas of management.

The mathematical school is characterized primarily by the use of operations research and modeling in management. Essentially, this school uses quantitative methods to solve management and production problems. She focuses on decision making, cost effectiveness, formal mathematical models and the use of computers.

The use of operations in the field of management is the application of quantitative methods to the operational problems of an organization. Having identified the problem, they develop a model of the situation, which approximately reflects the essential properties of reality, that is, it simplifies. This allows us to give variables quantitative values ​​and objectively compare and describe each variable, as well as the interdependencies between them. A key feature of this school is the replacement of verbal reasoning and descriptive analysis with models, symbols, and quantitative values.

The formation and development of this school is associated with such names as R. Ackoff, S. Vir, D. Forrester, and others. Along with operations research and modeling within this school, a systematic approach is developed ^* to management problems based on system analysis, which led to the creation of systems engineering. There are dozens of definitions of keywords that reveal the essence of this approach. Let us dwell only on some of them that allow him to understand.

System ^* is a certain integrity of unity, consisting of interdependent parts, each of which contributes to the characteristics of the whole.

System approach - an integrated study of a phenomenon or process as a whole from the standpoint of system analysis, i.e., clarification of a complex problem and its structuring into a series of tasks solved with the help of economic and mathematical methods, finding criteria for solving them, detailing goals, designing an effective organization for achieving goals.

Systems engineering is an applied science that investigates the tasks of real creation of complex control systems. The process of building a system consists of six steps:

1. System analysis.
2. System programming, which includes the definition of current goals: scheduling and work plans.
3. System design is the actual design of the system, its subsystems and components to achieve optimal efficiency.
4. Creating software programs.
5. Putting the system into operation and checking it.
6. System maintenance.

Thus, it can be said that the birth and development of managerial thought can be described as an intertwined chain of three different philosophies: classical (scientific and administrative schools); philosophy of human relations, or behavioral direction; and math school. At one time or another, each link in the chain was given overriding importance. The evolution of managerial thought has proved that all three links are interconnected and necessary and briefly can be presented in the form of table 1. 1.

T a l and c a 1.1

The contribution of various schools to management theory

School of Scientific Management

1. Use scientific analysis to determine the best ways to accomplish a task. 2. Selection of workers best suited to perform tasks and ensure their training. 3. Providing employees with the resources required to effectively carry out their tasks. 4. Systematic and proper use of material incentives to increase productivity. 5. Separation of planning and thinking from the work itself.

Classic School of Management

1. Development of management principles. 2. Description of management functions. 3. Systematic approach to the management of the entire organization.

School of Human Relations and School of Behavioral Sciences

1. The use of interpersonal relationship management techniques to increase satisfaction and productivity. 2. Application of the sciences of human behavior to the management and organization of the organization so that each employee can be fully used in accordance with its potential.

Mathematical School of Management

1. Deepen the understanding of complex management problems through the development and application of models. 2. Development of quantitative methods to help decision makers in difficult situations.

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Charisma (Greek) - mercy, grace, divine gift. Exceptional talent, endowment of a person (charismatic leader - prophet, preacher, political figure), action, institution or symbol with special qualities of exclusiveness, infallibility in the eyes of adherents. Ter-min was first used in the works of Trelch and M. Weber. Charisma is power built not on logic, not on traditions, but on the strength of personal qualities or leadership abilities.
Bureaucracy (Fr. bureaucratie) - the rule of the office; a specific form of social organizations in society, the essence of which lies in the primacy of form over the content of the activity, in subordinating the rules and objectives of the functioning of the organization to the goals of its preservation and strengthening. The type of organization characterized by a specialized distribution of labor, a clear management hierarchy, rules and standards, performance appraisal indicators, hiring principles based on employee competence.
Adhocracy (from the Latin. Ad hoc) - intended for this case.