1.5. The formation of the theory and methodology of education as a science

The theory and methodology of education as a science has a long history of formation, during which people, trying to comprehend their existence and their social experience, conducted a search for the most acceptable for society models of education. The specificity of these models was due both to objective factors (the nature of social relations and state power) and to subjective factors related to the personality of the teacher-scientist.

Even in ancient Greece, in two rival cities - Sparta and Athens - there were different approaches to the education of young people. If in Sparta, the main purpose of education was preparation for military service, in Athens, children received a broad philosophical, literary and political education (for more on this, see 3.4).

In the writings of the ancient Greek philosophers, the issues of education are addressed quite fully. Democritus (460–370 BC. E.) Was one of the first to raise the question of the nature of the upbringing, pointing to the great role of labor in it. Socrates (470–399 BC) believed that the main thing in education was to know eternal moral concepts and apply them in life. Plato (428–347 BC) first raised the issue of preschool education and a differentiated approach to preparing a person for life: who shows a propensity for mental exercises, he must become a philosopher, and who does not have this inclination is a warrior. Aristotle (384–322 BC. E.) Considered it necessary to teach children to make the right choice between disadvantage and excess.

In ancient Rome, Mark Fabius Quintillian (42-118, in some sources 35–90 AD), suggested that all children are smart by nature and need only proper upbringing.

In the Renaissance, Erasmus of Rotterdam (1439–1536), advocating for the equality of all people regardless of their origin, assigned the education of the individual a decisive role in the transformation of the world. Francois Rabelais (1494–1553) believed that education should develop personality and be in the interests of the economic development of society. Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) believed that one should not inspire ready-made truths to a child, since everything that he needs is achieved by his own experience.

Of particular importance for the development of the theory of education were the works of the outstanding Czech teacher Jan Amos Komensky (1592–1670), who substantiated the principle of nature conformance, according to which “the study of the laws of a person’s spiritual life should be borrowed from nature”, for which “it is necessary to proceed from the observation of those processes everywhere shows nature in their actions. "

French thinker and teacher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) argued that in each individual there are inexhaustible opportunities for improvement. He believed that the conditions existing in society should be brought into line with the needs and rights that nature has endowed the child with. The key to solving the problem Rousseau saw is to educate a person who does not depend on anyone, lives by the fruits of his labors, values ​​and knows how to defend his freedom. According to Rousseau, children should be brought up naturally, in accordance with nature. On the basis of this, Rousseau peculiarly defined the role of the educator, who only leads his pupil to the solution of questions, has a mainly indirect effect on the child. He organizes the whole environment, all the influences surrounding the child so that they suggest certain solutions.

The well-known Swiss teacher Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) set himself the goal of developing true humanity in children, their moral self-perfection, for which it is necessary to diversify and harmoniously develop all the natural forces and abilities of man. Pestalozzi distinguished the forces of human nature of a threefold race: mental, physical, moral. These forces should be developed in interrelation, avoiding one-sidedness. To provide children with assistance in the harmonious development of all human forces should be properly delivered upbringing, which begins with the birth of a child in a family.

The largest German teacher, Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841), believed that the goal of education was to form a virtuous person who respects and obeys the existing order. In the pedagogical process, he singled out three parts: management, training, and moral education. Training and education can not be divided, because it is a single, complex process (nurturing training). Moral education directly affects the soul of the child, directing his feelings, desires, actions. It is necessary to take care of the child, to rely on the good that is in his soul. Herbart developed specific means of moral education, to which he attributed the following: to keep a pupil, to determine a pupil, to establish clear rules of behavior, to maintain “calm and clarity” in the soul of a pupil, to “excite” the soul of a child with approval and censure, to “admonish” a pupil, to indicate and correct his blunders.

The outstanding German educator Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf Diesterweg (1790–1866) put forward the idea of ​​universal human education, for the achievement of which it is necessary to rely on three principles: nature, culture and amateur. By nature conglomeration, he understood following the process of the natural development of a person, taking into account his age and individual characteristics; under kulturosoobrazuyu - taking into account in the education of the conditions of place and time in which a person was born, especially the country that is the student's homeland; under amateur activities - activity aimed at serving the truth, beauty and goodness.

The great Russian teacher Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky (1824–1870) substantiated the anthropological concept of education, in which he convincingly proved that education of a person is possible only taking into account knowledge about him accumulated by all the sciences. The great merit of K. D. Ushinsky lies in the development of the idea of ​​a national education, the realization of which suggested the following:

1) it is necessary to create a wide network of public schools, ensuring the compulsory education of all children;

2) the upbringing should be directed by the people themselves; 3) education should develop the mental abilities of children so that they can be used in the interests of the people; 4) the central place in the upbringing of a person should be held by the native language - the “treasure trove of the spirit” of the people; 5) education should form a person whose first need is labor, a patriot with a strong will and character; 6) women should be provided with education equal to men; 7) blind borrowing and the introduction of foreign educational systems into practice, which do not correspond to the spirit of the Russian people, is unacceptable.

Peter Fedorovich Kapterev (1849–1923) put forward the idea of ​​moral hardening of a child. In his opinion, the self-development of the individual should play a decisive role in education, therefore, he considered education of character and will to be one of the central tasks of education.

Of great interest are educational ideas that were put forward in 1920–1930. domestic teachers and implemented in their innovation activities (Z. N. Ginzburg, A. S. Makarenko, M. M. Pistrak, S. M. Reeves, V. N. Soroka-Rosinsky, S. T. Shatsky, N. P Shulman et al.). Their experience took shape at the turn of the era, when the new and the old came into sharp controversy, causing chaos in the traditional ways of life. Innovation teachers associated the search for the new content and methods of the educational process with understanding the role of the surrounding social environment as a decisive factor in the educational process. Many interesting theoretical conclusions and practical findings of these teachers are still waiting for their researchers.

In the 1960-1970s. in Russian pedagogy (A.I. Dontsov, Yu.M. Gordin, V.M. Korotov, B.T. Likhachev, V.A. Sukhomlinsky, L.I. Umansky, and others) the idea of ​​a child was put forward and consistently developed educational team as a “scientifically organized system of the moral education of children's life” (I. F. Kozlov). The main functions of the children's educational team were: 1) introducing children into the system of social relations and organizing their accumulation of experience in these relations; 2) the formation within the framework of a collective of interpersonal relations according to the type of business relations of the company; 3) the formation of the moral essence of the personality, its moral and aesthetic attitude to the world and itself; 3) providing an effective pedagogical impact on a person or group of persons, correction and regulation of their behavior and activities.

An important role in the development of the theory and methodology of education was played by the idea of ​​the communal movement, which began to actively manifest itself in the 1970s. in the practice of schools and out-of-school associations (the Frunze commune in Leningrad, the Brigantina in Chita, the communal movements in the pioneer camp Orlyonok). The communist associations were headed by talented teachers I. P. Ivanov, F. Ya. Shapiro, M. N. Akhmetov, and others. The organizers of the communal movement saw the main role in the development of collective self-government of children, their creative initiative, public orientation, community and co-creation of children and adults.

The modern stage of development of the theory and methodology of education (V.I. Andreev, E.P. Belozertsev, T.N. Malkov ekaya, L.I. Novikova, I.P. Podlasyy, S.A. Smirnov, VS Selivanov, V. A. Slastenin, N. Ye. Shchurkova, etc.) orients the teacher to humanistic education and social interaction with the person, which implies the solution of the following tasks: 1) familiarizing pupils with the system of universal human values; 2) identification of the creative potential of each person; 3) the formation of a sense of freedom, the ability to objective self-esteem; 4) respect for the rules and norms of living together; 5) fostering a positive attitude towards work; 6) the formation of a culture of interpersonal communication, based on tolerance and a sense of national dignity.

To accomplish these tasks in the organization of the educational process, the following are necessary: ​​1) a personal approach as recognition of an individual as the highest social value; attitude to the pupil as a subject of education; 2) nature conformance - taking into account the sex and age characteristics of pupils; 3) cultural conformity - relying on the national traditions of the people; 4) humanization of interpersonal relationships; 5) reliance on the feelings of pupils.