Typology of communication.

1. Units of communication analysis.

The communication process can be divided into separate fragments, communication units - communicative acts . Of course, the communicative process itself is a continuum, a continuous interaction of communication participants. However, in order to analyze and describe, it is necessary to allocate discrete units - that is how human knowledge is arranged.

Consider the basic concepts and terms used to analyze the communicative process and its elements.

In communication acts involved participants of communication - communicators ( sender and receiver ), generating and interpreting messages.

Communicants can be human individuals and public institutions (governments, parties, firms, etc.). In the latter case, we are dealing with a certain abstraction, because the final sender and recipient is always a single person. At the same time in law, politics, business, education and other public spheres of communication very often the collegiate or institutionalized sender is recognized as the responsible sender .

Usually messages are sayings or texts. But in non-verbal communication, a message can be an image (a turn road sign or a photograph of a meeting of political leaders), a physical object (a flower on a safe house window as a failure message or an architectural structure as a message about its purpose, a gift as a sign of appreciation or a black mark as a sign of sentence ). Messages can also recognize actions (for example, landmark actions of politicians or company moves to promote goods).

Messages consist of signs of various kinds (verbal and non-verbal), which are studied by semiotics or semiology (the science of signs, from the Greek. Σήμα, σημείον 'sign'). Signs form a sign system , code or language (verbal language, sign language, cultural code, Morse code, programming languages, etc.).

Communication can be carried out both verbal and non - verbal means.

Verbal communication for a person is basic - it means not the genesis of communication and not 'percentage of use', but the universality of this method for a person, the universal translation of any other communicative means into verbal human language. Verbal means include oral and written language varieties.

Non-verbal means are divided into two groups: primary languages ​​(a system of gestures, but not the sign languages ​​of the deaf and dumb !, pantomime, facial expressions) and secondary languages ​​(Morse code, musical notation, programming languages). Verbal means are studied by linguistics, non-verbal - by paralinguistics and separate sections of semiotics.

The most developed research apparatus for learning verbal language (mainly in structural linguistics). This apparatus is borrowed by many other social sciences to describe the spheres of their interests.

In structural linguistics, the actual characters and their constituent figures are distinguished , for example, phonemes as constituent elements of word signs. These are the terms of the Danish structural linguist L. Elmslev (1899-1965). He writes: "... the language is organized in such a way that with the help of a handful of figures and thanks to their all new and new arrangements a legion of signs can be built." In addition, it is found that signs of one level of a language are constituent parts of signs of a higher level: phonemes distinguish between sound shells of morphemes, morphemes - words, etc.

HERARCHY OF THE VERBAL LANGUAGE LEVELS

PHONETICAL-PHYSIOLOGICAL CONTINUUM differential sign	LEVELS	phonetic	morphological		lexical	syntactic	text	intertext CONTINUUM OF RECEPTION
	SIGNS	phoneme	morpheme		lexeme	sentence	text
	FIGURES	differential sign	phoneme		morpheme	lexeme	sentence
user position		sound letter	part of the word		word	sentence	text
	implicit level				clear level of activity			implicit level
position of the researcher	newest scope of research			traditional scope of research				newest spheres

Introduction of the phoneme concept at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th century (thanks to the Russian scientist I.Baudouin de Courtenay), highlighting the differential features of phonemes and developing opposition systems of the phonological and morphological level (thanks to N.S. Trubetskoy, R.O. Yakobson, L .Shcherbe, etc.) put the study of human language to a new level. Individuals pronounce different sounds (cf. sound in men and women, two different men or women, in adults and adolescents, etc.), the phoneme as a sound type unites the general that allows it to function as a sense-differentiating unit in human language activity . One phoneme is distinguished from another by a set of differential features .

One of the basic concepts of differential analysis in linguistics is binary opposition (the opposition is yes / no, +/–, 1/0). An example of a binary opposition is the opposition of phonemes in the so-called 'minimal pairs' - lexemes, differing only in one phoneme, more precisely, in one differential feature. Thus, the words dol / tol are distinguished by the phonemes d and t, more precisely, the opposition of differential signs voicing / deafness (no voicing) is observed here.

At the same time, the sound, on the basis of which the sound type is distinguished - the phoneme, is not limited only to a set of differential features. In addition to the differential, the sound consists of constitutive features, sometimes undifferentiated. This separation is very important when comparing languages. The fact that in one of the languages ​​is a differential feature may not be distinguished by either phonemic analysis or the hearing of a naive user - a carrier of another language. This leads to difficulties of the so-called 'language barrier' and phonetic emphasis in speech. For example, the sign of softness / hardness (non-softness) of a consonant is usual for the Russian language both in theory and in practice. For a carrier, for example, English, softness without special training is not available, from where the emphasis is taken (so, Petya will be pronounced either with a substitution and a firm n: Pietia, or simply with a firm consonant). In French, openness / closure of a vowel (degree of elevation of a language) is a phonemic, semantic distinctive feature, for example, nez [ne] 'nose' / naît [n E ] 'gives birth'. Russian learners of French cannot 'grasp' the difference right away, for them [e] is one sound. But even in Russian, the degree of elevation of the language is different in words (more open, similar to French [ E ] and these (more closed, similar to French [e]). That is, Russians can make these sounds, they have no phonetic and physiological obstacles to this, but can not recognize them, because the difference between these sounds is not phonemic, differential, sense-differentiating.

Opposite differential analysis was later extended to the morphological level, attempts were made to use it at higher levels of the language and in other areas of human activity. Thus, the French anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss (p.1908) successfully applied structural linguistic methods in the study of primitive culture (in particular, kinship systems and mythological systems, labor tools and other artifacts).

Differential structural analysis of language and culture may not exhaust the diversity of these phenomena and the characteristics of their functioning. However, it has a rather sobering effect on the naive monocultural view of the world. Each of the cultures has its own system of differentiations, the opposition +/– has its own specifics in each of them. And from here - there are no good and bad cultures, they all complement each other (the complementarity principle of N. Bohr). In a situation of intercultural communication, a communicator-carrier of another language and another cultural code may experience a communicative accent or a communicative shock (in literature it is more often called a cultural shock ).

A mark that is neutral or positive in one system of cultural codes may be misunderstood as a hostile or negative carrier of another culture. So, for example, the kinema of the legs on the table will be perceived as obvious 'lack of culture' in Russia and neutral in the USA. It should immediately be noted that the word 'uncultured' is not and cannot be a scientific term. This is the term of the naive carrier of a cultural code, for which its own culture is a unique intermediary system between nature, society and the individual, a system that regulates life, survival, behavior and joint activities. Accordingly, one can single out a monocultural and multicultural (or complementary) view of communication.

Levels and their elements are most carefully developed in linguistics. In other areas of communication, the use of the linguistic apparatus is still predominantly metaphorical in nature, a more thorough development of the structure of other communication systems is still waiting for its researchers. But you can give a number of examples of the use of the structural method in the study of various codes.

The combination of significant gestures, mimic and pantomimic movements, in other words, kinema (the emic suffix is ​​used to designate the type of movement, similarly to the term phoneme ), is called kinesics (from the Greek. Κύνησις 'movement') . The term 'kinema' is used by the famous Italian director P.Pazolini when analyzing the language of cinema.

The system of mutual use of space by communicants (proximity to each other, etc.) is called proxemics (from the Greek. Πρόξιμςς 'close').

2. Forms of communication.

Consider the typology of forms and means of communication.

Forms of communication , such as written, oral, visual, etc. differ from each other in special message coding systems.

Communication tools combine various forms of communication, often using some technology to fill the temporal and spatial distance between the sender and the recipient of the message (for example, a book: words, fonts, pictures, graphics).

Mass media (QMS) can also include various forms of communication. Thus, television and cinema use the words of the oral language, pictures, music; newspaper - written language words, fonts, illustrations, etc.

Some of the properties of forms and means of communication are related to their nature or technological limitations. So, the words are transient: The word is not a sparrow, it will fly out - you will not catch it. Words can be heard only at the distance of the sender's voice and the receiver's hearing. Printed materials are more resistant to time and space, it even sometimes leads to managerial problems (cluttered with old documents).

Some of the properties of forms and means of communication, as well as communicative genres, are conditional or traditional. There is a myth that all the “cartoons” are not serious, commercials are not highly artistic, although this is not related to their nature (there are examples of the opposite). Radio and television are considered means of mass communication, although there are no obstacles to their use in group and interpersonal communication (radio telephone, videophone), etc.

All forms and means of communication are 'the continuation of the human body', complementing and enhancing the lack of functions, especially vision and hearing (loudspeakers and sound transmissions amplify a soft voice, materialized means such as magnetic tape reduce the distance between communicators, or even allow communication through temporary layers).

Communication tools can be used both intentionally and unintentionally. Non-verbal signals (facial expressions) very often inform the recipient without any particular desire for the sender of the message. An outside listener may also be an involuntary recipient of an oral speech message.

E. Sepir

The distinguished American researcher Edward Sepir made a distinction between fundamental means, or primary processes, communicative in nature, and some secondary means that facilitate the process of communication. The primary means and types of communicative behavior , according to Sepira, are as follows: language, gestures, imitation of public behavior in the process of inclusion in the way of life of the society and 'social hint' (implicit processes of new acts of communicative behavior). Secondary funds are aimed at facilitating the primary communication processes in society: linguistic transformations, symbolism and the creation of physical conditions for the implementation of the communicative act.

Language transformations are associated with the replacement of a code, cognitive 'translation' (for example, oral language into a letter, Morse code, etc.) and make communication possible in cases where it is obstructed by circumstances (for example, time and distance). Symbolic systems (flags-signals in the fleet, a semaphore and a traffic light, a forge in an army communicative environment, etc.) translate a possible verbal message not cognitively, but globally, in its entirety. This is required in cases where a quick perception of the message is needed, a quick response when a simple yes / no response is expected. In the army, for example, where 'orders do not discuss', or on the road, when there is not much time to turn at high speed, long text messages would be harmful. The development of physical conditions that allow communication, along Sepira, includes railways, an airplane (delivering a communicator), a telegraph, a telephone, a radio (delivering a message or reproducing it).

The increase in the number of funds expands the scope of communication. Two opposite views on these processes belong to M. Mac-Luen and E. Sepyra.

McLuhan believed that the means largely determine the content of the message ( the medium is the message ). He largely foresaw the development of communication in modern society and in the 60-70s (before the advent of the Internet and the globalization of television) gave priority to visual communication. He believed that modern culture is visual in its essence, as opposed to, for example, the culture of the 19th - early 20th century, mainly written (printed). The invention of the printing press at one time also changed the communicative paradigm, opening the ' Gutenberg galaxy '. Globalization of communication, according to McLuhan, leads to the creation of a single communicative space - the 'global village'.

E. Sepir, on the contrary, expressed "the fear of being understood by too many." From his point of view, this threatens the psychological reality of the image of the expanded Self, opposed to the non-Self . The inability to keep a message within the limits for which it was calculated was also recognized as a payment for facilitating communication (examples: listening devices or a fall in the level of artistic values ​​with an increase in demand and circulation). At the same time, he understood that communication constraints, such as the diversity of languages ​​and the need for translation, are perceived as a threatening obstacle. He also appreciated the globalization of the scientific community and the introduction of an international communication language.

3. Types of communication.

Types of communication are distinguished by the composition of communicants. This is a very significant difference for a professional communicator, because the technology of work in each case has its own specifics (even the volume of the voice in case of, for example, a conversation with oneself, with one interlocutor or with a large group will differ).

- intrapersonal communication is equal to talking to oneself, a person dialogue and his inner 'monologue', talking with his inner voice, alter ego, conscience, etc .;

- interpersonal communication is usually associated with the ideal model of communication and in many respects primary, it involves two communicants (but there are options for the observer, the included observer and an outsider, communication against the background of witnesses present, in a crowd, in a restaurant, etc.);

- group communication: within a group, between groups, an individual - a group (interview of a political leader or a conversation of the company’s head with employees); there are differences - not so much quantitative, as qualitative: different goals - in communication in small and large groups ( chat rooms and forums on the Internet; message boards );

- Mass communication takes place if a message is received or used by a large number of people, often consisting of groups that differ in their interests and communicative experience (television, radio, production of CDs and cassettes; the Internet differs in terms of coverage and overall 'commitment ”, here individual group selection can be triggered; telephone and mail are suitable for this category only quantitatively, with the exception of mass or target, ie group mailing of advertising by mail).

At the level of mass and, in part, at the level of group communication, paradoxical phenomena arise. The sender can be an individual, and the recipient can be a group, a collective, a mass, a party, a people, etc. But at the same time the recipient is not at all one ear and not one brain.

And the sender of the message can be a so-called collegiate author: the whole company, party, people speak with one person. One observant American student who has studied communication has even changed Lasswell's formula for this case: that he is talking to someone. But all members of the team or all residents of the country do not speak at the same time

Finally, a firm can speak with a firm (talks about a common pricing policy in the market for goods or services), a party with a party (talks about nominating a single candidate), a people with people (talks about peace or about joint military actions). In these cases, the naive communicators say: We have agreed with the Americans, We have concluded a contract with Ferrari. But those who say so, as a rule, were not even close to the place of conclusion of the contract.

What's happening?Why is it that we invent a mythical communicator, acting as a separate individual instead of a real group or mass of individuals? We talk about him most often in the singular. Like any myth, a mythologized collegiate communicator is needed for convenience and to save effort. The group or the masses, in whose name this communicator acts, have common thoughts and general statements. The mythologized generalized communicator, on the one hand, performs a unifying, and on the other, minimizing function, that is, it reduces all statements, all communicative acts of a certain community of people to one instead of a set.

As the same Sapir wrote, "the Republican Party as a historical entity is merely the result of an abstraction of thousands and thousands of such single acts of communication that have stable referential properties common to them all." These words are applicable to any party, to any group, to any community of people. Generalization of separate acts of separate individuals and designation of their individual name for human cognition. We are dealing here with emergent phenomena (from the Latin emergo 'to float to the surface, to appear, to arise'), that is, such that in reality exist only in the form of periodic elementary movements. A person, communicating with them, comes up with an individual name for them, moreover, embodies these ideas in the image of a collegial communicant. A takimologic-mythified communicant can be both a symbolic image (Uncle Sam, Motherland), and a real person speaking on behalf of the community (Putin is our everything). Language and other types of communicative activity are, in fact, also emergent phenomena. Generalizing the development of the electric energy generator on the shaking of the air by speech apparatuses by many people under the terms "word", "grammatical form", "phrase", we conventionally perceive the combination of sound and meaning as a separately existing thing. The French philosopher Gaston Bachelard (1884-1962) called this property of human thinking chosisme (literal translation "thingism"). We call the phenomena of our thinking by individual names and begin to treat them as real existing things, forgetting about the gradual outcome of metonymy (figurative meanings). This word-myth replaces whole complexes of our experience in our conversation. Saving on mental efforts, we explain this saving by changing reality, conventionally accepting the non-existent as existing.

This formulation of the generalization of human experience associated with saving resources can turn out to be dangerous. The danger lies, in particular, in the fact that an individual can claim the right to speak for a group of people, without expressing his own interests. Such communicative behavior is very typical of financial marginals, whose statements evoke generalizations such as people, nation, etc. A more cunning statement is the use of an individual's name in a generalized sense, which is often found in modern advertising and political discourse (person, student, housewife). For example: Everything a student needs; Everything for the good of man. The public mind has figured out, concluded last of all from slogans: Now I know what "Everything for the good of a cunning man" means. I was in Moscow, and a man of this.

The paradox of the impact on communication is that the final sender is always one person, and this, by the way, places special responsibility on the communicator. "Everything that is said is said by someone," says U. Maturana. In his article on the philosophical act, M.M. Bakhtin writes about private, responsible thinking, about an act and a statement-act. And 'There is an opinion' is a slogan of irresponsible communication in a totalitarian society, a society with distributed responsibility (The Party said - the Komsomol answered: "There is!"). There may be many recipients, but each of them individually always bears personal responsibility for their own interpretation and actions, therefore, mass psychosis, for example, fascism in Germany and other countries, as an "ideology of housewives and losers", must be experienced by each and every one of them. they individually, so that in our time it can be rejected as a disease. Understanding the causes of mass communication processes and the causes of communication as a mass process is absolutely necessary in the modern world for everyone. On the one hand, communication technology specialists must be aware of the phenomena they use in their practical activities. On the other hand, the consumer of mass media and propaganda is also not prohibited from knowing some of the basics of the theory of communication with the topic, so as not to be a gullible victim of this very propaganda and unfair influence on the mass or group consciousness.

Probably, in the future this may happen with a consumer society that fights against unfair communication in the sphere of goods and services, and public organizations may have requirements for protected communication security of information consumers. However, to protect not in the form of censorship bans, but in the form of educating consumers and calling responsible communicators to account.

Additional types of communication: intercultural (communication between peoples-native speakers of different languages ​​and communicative cultures, or between states, and interpersonal - between the borders of these peoples or states), organizational (communication in the business and production sphere, including interpersonal, group and personal). -group). These changes take place not only with the peculiarities of the communicative environment in the sphere where the communication is carried comunicative activity, but also with the composition of communicants (one communicant or a community of communicants, or some combination of both).

4. Communication environment and areas of communication.

Practically everything that surrounds a person, what constitutes his habitat is also a communicative environment. At the same time, a part of this environment consists of objects and phenomena that can be used in the communicative function, and a part of it is the communication media proper, for which the transmission of messages is their main purpose.

The message is never sent for the sake of the message itself. His goal is to organize the actions of the recipient (or the sender himself, as in the case of thinking about his actions). A word is always an act (an idea that comes from M. M. Bakhtin’s' philosophy of involvement ”), we can speak of conjugacy of communication and action, of speech (the term of Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky).

Recently, the term discourse has become popular in political science, sociology, sociolinguistics and communication theory (it can be conditionally decoded using the formula: speech + action). Since the action and interaction of individuals occurs in a certain communicative environment, in a certain social sphere of communication , they talk about institutional discourse (political discourse, religious discourse, pedagogical discourse, business discourse, production discourse, etc.)

The complex of communicative acts, united by a common task and situational conditions, can be called a communicative event. In the field of business communication, such communication events can be considered, for example, presentations and exhibitions. In the political sphere, an example of a communicative event can be the visit of the head of state (a planned and organized event) and an act of terrorism (unplanned, at least by government structures, an event that requires a certain reaction). In the case of an unplanned communicative event, we often encounter the need for crisis communication .

W. Eco

Communication takes place in different areas. In some of them (for example, architecture, music) it is quite difficult to divide the communicative continuum into discrete units. The well-known Italian researcher, Umberto Eco , who believes that “culture is primarily communication, ” offered his own, interesting and in-depth analysis of a number of communication areas: cinema, painting, architecture, advertising, etc. A deep analysis of communication in the advertising, commercial, political sphere, in movies and photos can be found in the works of Roland Bart.

Spheres of communication attracted the attention of researchers to varying degrees. The sphere of household communication (mainly interpersonal) is considered quite traditional. But here, in connection with the development of psychoanalysis, neuro-linguistic programming, on the one hand, and also with the advent of family services and adolescent psychological assistance, on the other, new communication problems and tasks arise. How to talk to a teenage addict? - A question, the answer to which must be given not only by psychology and sociology, but also by linguistics.

The sphere of industrial communication in our country was in sight, mainly within the framework of engineering psychology. Recently, developments are being conducted in the direction of communication management and applied rhetoric. The communication style (speech and non-verbal) of the manager with subordinates, the interaction of employees in the process of work, the writing of official documents and other aspects can both improve the work of the enterprise and destroy it. In essence, the work of personnel departments in our country should include the solution of such problems. Now, these departments, unlike the corresponding departments in the institutions of Western countries, are engaged in 'paperwork'. During the period of totalitarianism, the functions of these departments included, mainly, the supervision of employees, the collection of information about their origins and 'reliability'. Until now, documents for admission to work (Personal sheet) include, for example, such columns as Social origin (from workers, from peasants. From employees). In the current situation, such texts seem anachronistic and can be attributed to ritual atavism (the function is lost, but the form and regularity of the ritual’s departure is preserved).

In connection with the rapid development of market relations, the sphere of business communication or business communication emerged from production. The presence of sufficient funds in the field of business has contributed to the publication of educational and reference books on communication and communication culture, the spread of communicative knowledge and techniques, albeit in a rather simplified form.

Research in the sphere of political discourse is conducted quite widely. The presence of many parties and political organizations, trends and groups requires orientation in the political communicative space.

The scope of scientific discourse is also quite a traditional object of research interest. At the same time, if a specific language of scientific publications was previously studied, now researchers are attracted by various problems: from creating a virtual global scientific community (via the Internet) to organizing communication events such as scientific conferences and congresses. In a number of countries the organization of scientific communication has become the subject of business.

The sphere of educational discourse also reveals new facets in our country in connection with the differentiation of education, the emergence of the market for educational services, the emergence of the need for advertising and 'public relations' among educational institutions. Recruitment to university, meetings with future students, vocational guidance, consulting services, testing - these are a number of areas of communication of educational institutions with their customers.

The conversation of the teacher with the student - the scope of pedagogical discourse - is also a separate area of ​​consideration.

Communicative areas of show business and sports business are also quite young, although they have a certain background in our country. In the west, the public image of pop stars and sports heroes has long been created by professionals in the field of communication and image making.

The tourism industry is very fertile in terms of communication and communications. In a number of cases, it intersects with the sphere of international, intercultural communication.

International communication is carried out at various levels both in the form of official (traditionally) and in the form of national (recently) diplomacy. There is an extensive literature on the features of intercultural communication, diplomatic etiquette, diplomatic protocol, etc.

Not so long ago, specialists in communication theory, linguistics, psychology, and other social sciences 'penetrated' into medical and legal discourse. 'The word heals' - this well-known truth leads to thinking about exactly how this happens and how to work with the word. The conversation between the doctor and the patient should not proceed spontaneously, otherwise fatal accidents are possible. So, in a famous comedy film, the patient, having misunderstood the words of the doctor, decided that he had no more than a month to live. The interpretation of the laws (the Law - that the pole, wherever you turn - there and left ) can also play a crucial role in the life of a person or organization.

The sphere of religious discourse serves the needs of communication in the church. Here the problem of understanding and interpretation is also important, it is not without reason that the science of hermeneutics (the theory of interpretation) arose precisely because of the need to interpret old texts of Scripture.

Tasks for self-assessment and self-preparation

Examine the list of additional specializations for public relations:- Modern Press Service - Public Relations in government and public structures - ... in commercial structures - ... in the media - Communication Management

- Public Relations in Economics - ... in production - ... in management - ... in the political sphere - ... in the social sphere - ... in the field of ecology - ... in science

- ... in the field of culture 14 - ... in health care - ... in the field of agricultural production - ... in the fuel and energy complex - ... in small business - ... in finance and banking

- Organization and implementation of a communication campaign

- Organization of work in public relations agencies - Organization of the work of the department of public relations in corporations

- Telecommunication and computer technologies in public relations

- Marketing Research in Public Relations - Public Relations and Advertising in the Communication Process

- Public relations in the field of mass physical culture, recreation and sports

What forms, means and types of communication are mainly used in these areas? Who plays the role of communicants (individuals or collegial communicants)? Who bears the main share of responsibility for discourse (speech)?

1. Conduct a primary analysis of the communicative act (event) in the field of business communication (for example, presentation of a company or product, technical or trade exhibition, etc.), based on your own experience, video sequences and printed materials. Use the analysis scheme (see Appendix).

2. Conduct a primary analysis of the communicative act (event) in the field of scientific communication (for example, a report at an international scientific congress or a conference on the Internet) using an analysis scheme.

3. Conduct a primary analysis of the communicative act (event) in the field of trade (for example, registration of a supermarket or sale of goods).

4. Conduct a primary analysis of the communicative act (event) in the organization (the superiors are subordinates) and between the organizations (delegation - delegation: at negotiations).