Interpersonal communication

Interpersonal communication is a process of simultaneous interaction of communicants and their influence on each other; a process of exchanging messages and their interpretation by two or more individuals who have come into contact with each other.

Characteristics of interpersonal communication

Interpersonal communication is characterized by a number of features that make it specific as a type of communication:

The inevitability and inevitability of interpersonal communication are explained by the very conditions of human existence - a person, as a social phenomenon, could not exist without communication, which is his most important need;
The irreversibility of interpersonal communication is understood as the impossibility of destroying what has been said;
Direct feedback is an indispensable condition for the implementation of interpersonal communication.
In interpersonal communications, both the sender and the recipient are separate individuals.

Forms of interpersonal communication

Based on the way in which communicants interact in the process of interpersonal communication, communicative linguistics identifies forms of speech communication.

Dialogue is the most active form of interpersonal communication, in which two communicants exchange their own statements. Dialogic speech is closely connected with the immediate specific communication situation, where the interlocutors are united by a thematic community and communicative motives. Each of the participants in communication alternates the role of listener and speaker, creates or perceives remarks in a certain time sequence. Interaction occurs precisely in dialogue. G. Bush divides dialogues into groups:

erotic - "question - answer", and the activity of the interlocutors can be different according to the communication situation;
eristic - discussion of a certain problem;
rhetorical - transmission and discussion of a specific topic;
carnivalesque - free, informal communication between interlocutors.
V. L. Skalkin, studying the communicative features of language, adds a trilogue - a conversation of three people to dialogue as a form of interpersonal communication.

Monologue is an expanded functional-communicative speech of one communicant, which is the result of his active speech activity, built as an expression of his own position on a certain issue or problem, and is generally not intended for an immediate reaction of other participants in communication. Monologue exists in oral and written forms of speech. Monologue is one of the verbal forms of communication.

Polylogue is a form of interpersonal communication between multiple communicants (more than three).

Theories of interpersonal communication

The theory of uncertainty reduction is that strangers after meeting go through certain stages in order to reduce uncertainty in relation to each other, and form an idea of ​​whether they like each other or not.
The theory of social exchange - human interaction is compared to an economic transaction, due to the fact that communicants seek to maximize benefits and minimize costs. A person will disclose information about himself in the case when the ratio of costs and benefits is acceptable to him. The main content of this theory is the expected benefits or costs in the relationship. Symbolic Interaction Theory - focuses on the place and role people occupy in society through interactions. People are motivated to interact by the meanings they ascribe to people, things, and events.
Social Penetration Theory - develops a proposition about the reciprocity of behavior between two people who are in the process of developing a relationship. Such behavior can vary depending on the nonverbal exchange of information, interpersonal perception. Behavior depends on the different levels of intimacy that occur during the relationship.
Violation Expectancy Theory - explains the relationship between nonverbal communication and people's interpretations of nonverbal behavior. People have certain expectations about nonverbal behavior based on social norms, past experiences, and situational aspects of that behavior.

Intimate Recognition Regulation Theory - the theory is concerned with how people negotiate openness and privacy in accordance with the information communicated. This theory focuses on how people in relationships manage the boundaries that separate public from private. Axioms of interpersonal communication
To American psychologists P. Vaclavik, Dr. Beavin and D. Jackson are credited with describing some properties of communication that have practical significance and that they called the axioms of human communication.

Impossibility of Absence of Communication
In a situation where people are accessible to each other, any behavior has informational value, that is, it is communication. No matter how hard a person tries, he cannot help but engage in communication. Researchers have identified a number of strategies for avoiding communication.

direct demonstration of unwillingness to communicate;
the strategy of least resistance, when one of the partners reluctantly agrees with the other or agrees with everything;
disqualification of communication, when one of the partners acts in such a way as to nullify both his own messages and the messages of the other person. Among the communication techniques of this kind are contradictory statements, inconsistency, change of topic, incomplete sentences, unintelligibility or mannerisms of speech;
acceptable to the interlocutor, not offensive to him/her indication of reasons why communication is undesirable at the moment: a person can pretend to be asleep, deaf, drunk, pretend not to understand the language of the interlocutor or pretend to have any other defect that makes communication justifiably impossible.
Any communication has a content level and a relationship level
The content level is the information that is transmitted in the message. It does not matter whether it is true, false, reliable, incorrect or insoluble. At the relationship level, the way this message should be perceived is transmitted. The attitude can be expressed both by speech techniques and non-verbally by shouting, smiling or other means. The nature of the relationship can be clearly understood from the context in which the communication takes place.

Punctuation of the sequence of events
People organize their interactions based on their own ideas about the important and unimportant, the causes and consequences of actions, and the interpretation of the meaning of what is happening. These semantic dominants organize behavioral events, exerting a significant influence on the ongoing interaction.

Symmetrical and complementary interaction
Relationships between people are based either on equality or on difference. In the first case, partners try to copy each other's behavior, and therefore their relationship can be called symmetrical. In the second case, the behavior of one partner complements the behavior of the other, this type of interaction is called complementary. Symmetrical relationships are thus characterized by equality and minimization of differences, while the peculiarity of complementary interaction is bringing differences to a maximum.

Criticism
In the structure of interpersonal communication, the following are traditionally distinguished as mandatory components: who transmits information (sender), what is transmitted (content of information), to whom the information is transmitted (recipient), how the information is transmitted (channel), feedback (direct or indirect). Unlike other researchers, V. P. Konetskaya considers this structure to be insufficiently complete, and identifies two more components: the effectiveness of communication and its situational determinacy (environment, number of participants, time and spatial characteristics, etc.). The first component cannot always be objectively determined, since effectiveness may have its own assessment for each communicant.

It happened on one of the Spanish beaches. There were a lot of people, it was hot. Nina Semyonovna pulled a straw hat over her eyes. There were cries of children, similar to the cries of seagulls. But there were no gulls on this beach. Nina Semenovna turned her other side to the sun and opened one eye. It was really hot. She opened her second eye and saw that there were no children around!

She jumped up. Ten minutes ago, Katya and Anton were playing near the water. She looked around the shore. Well, of course, everything is in order with them ... After all, Katya is already 6, and Anton is 8 years old. Some dark-haired young man smiled and winked at her. She gave him an annoyed look: another Don Juan!

Panic swept over her: where are the children! What will their mother say: aunt lost her nephews!

Ten minutes later she was at the police station. How good it would be to know Spanish at least a little! Fortunately, a little dictionary and a few desperate gestures helped her to get there. But there were no children there ... She felt like an idiot, clutching a striped beach bag, and in only her robe thrown over the bathing suit.

The Spanish policeman who tried to help her was gallant, but did not speak either Russian or English. Nina Semyonovna tried to say something in Spanish, but without success, and they smiled at each other uncomprehendingly. We had to do something. After all, something terrible could happen to children.

Nina Semenovna looked the policeman straight in the eyes and took a deep breath. She showed with a gesture (flat palm) that Katie was rising from the floor. Then she shrugged and portrayed emotion. The policeman looked at her with interest, and then pointed to a picture on the wall. It was a picture of a child ...

The story of Nina Semenovna shows us different ways of establishing contact with other people, different types of interpersonal communication, carried out through various channels (this is especially noticeable, since in this example not all means at once "work"). Of the two types of interpersonal communication - verbal (speech) and nonverbal - non-verbal communication is more ancient (see Lecture 1 ), verbal communication is the most universal.

Non-verbal communication is always carried out in person. These means, as it is known, can accompany speech, and can also be used separately from verbal means. Non-verbal signs can be divided into three main groups: body language, paralinguistic means, clothing and jewelry .

Body language can tell a lot about the feelings and intentions of communicants. The biological roots of body language lie in various poses of animals studied by ethology (posture of intimidation, reconciliation, love intentions, etc.). Values ​​of posture, position of limbs, fingers, etc. not always precisely defined initially, they depend on the context. Moreover, the human body is mobile enough to assume almost any position.

At the same time, researchers of human biosemiotics mark a number of typical poses, the sets of which (paradigms) are culturally tinged: crossed legs when sitting with heels on top - India, squatting with hung hands - 'zone', etc. These signs have variations: the first example can be found not only in India, but also in Western Samoa, the second - not only in the zone, but also among modern teenagers. In both cases, we can talk about the influence of contacts and substrate. Contacts and substrate are terms borrowed from areal linguistics and comparative cultural studies. A substrate is understood as a local language or a local culture, or a more ancient layer of language or culture, on which a superstratum is layered - external language or culture that influences the substrate.

Thus, as in animals, human postures, or rather their semiotic interpretation, are not completely innate: they are assimilated in the process of communicating with their own kind. Practical conclusion from this situation: you can learn and relearn (creating a personal image of a communicator given by certain parameters) and retraining others (creating an image of another person, doing image-making).

Body language includes five components:

	gestures: a method of using hands as a sign. You can, for example, wave your hand from across the room, attracting attention; show height and other sizes with a hand from the floor or with two hands - the size of the fish caught. You can point your finger at an item, although it is not considered decent in the usual context. But if this is done in the context of professional discourse, then this is quite acceptable and even necessary: ​​football referees point to the center of the field or towards the goal.
The use of gestures for a person becomes necessary when other means are unavailable or of little expressiveness: coaches during races report intermediate results to a skier or skater, words would simply not be heard. As already mentioned, a special case is the language of the deaf-and-dumb. On the one hand, the use of the visual channel is inevitable, on the other hand, it is not an additional, but a primary language for the hearing impaired, so it cannot be included in this classification.
		The sign language of the deaf-and-dumb replaces ordinary language. It consists of units of two levels of division, the minimum bilateral unit is considered to be a herema, a psychological analog of the phoneme. It does not coincide with the national! So amneslen (American Sign Language) is close to the language of the deaf of France, but is not akin to the language of the deaf of England. The figure shows the 'word' of the deaf-and-dumb language, meaning 'student'.
Non-mental means (look, facial expression, movement of the head and body) correspond to non -verbal means for the deaf-and - dumb; sometimes facial expressions perform a distinguishing role (to avoid homonymy of lexemes). There is a gestural version of a national language that preserves the syntactic structure, but reduces the morphology. In it, the words of the sound language are replaced by the gestures of the native, in the absence of it, they are replaced by the letters, transmitted in alphabetic fingers (an analogue of transcription or transliteration). Fragments of the English and Russian finger alphabets are given in the following figures:

facial expressions: a way to use facial expressions. First of all, we look at a person in the eyes - a mirror of the soul. Mimicry tool is the mouth. We can observe the finest differences in smile and gaze. The position of the details of the face performs the following functions: raised eyebrows in surprise, anger, fear or greeting. Aristotle also studied face reading - physiognomy. It is believed that one can recognize the character of a person in the face. In the ancient world, conducted analogies with animals: thick mane, wide nose and big mouth (lion) = courage and perseverance; fox face = fox nature, sheep head = harmless and humble character, bullish appearance = unjustified persistence. These properties were distinguished in ancient Greece and the Ancient East, then doctors and naturalists Johann Lafater (1741-1803), Franz Gall (1758-1828), our compatriots I.Sikorsky, M.Vladislavlev, P.Lesgaft wrote about it. The latter identified the types of faces: the face of an intellectual, an official, a military man, a merchant, etc.

The Chinese conditionally divide the face into three zones: upper, middle and lower. The upper zone (forehead) shows the life course of a person from 15 to 30 years and in extreme old age, the average (from eyebrows to the tip of the nose) - from 35 to 50 years, the lower (from upper lip to chin) - from 51 to 77 years. The perfect forehead (its shape and skin color are taken into account) testifies to the excellent condition of the body and spirit. The harmonious middle zone is about the balance of the psyche. The correct form of the lower zone is about the balance of character.

As you can see, in mimicry two layers: natural and cultural. At the same time, a person is inclined to interpret even purely natural features of a face with the help of cultural semiotic codes.

body position: a way to keep ourselves (our body). It is believed that a relaxed position testifies to the credibility of the interlocutor. Much in the semiotics of the body goes back to natural instincts. Tension in a stressful situation (for example, alone with a criminal) resembles the behavior of an animal in relation to a predator. Body semiotics is very important at the first meeting, because the actual human moments of the personality have not yet had time to manifest. So, during an interview when applying for a job, it is recommended to sit up straight, not lounging on a chair, to demonstrate interest, to look into the interlocutor's eyes, but not very persistently. Indeed, confrontation - in the literal sense a skirmish - begins with a certain look at the interlocutor and from one-to-one body position. There are differences in cultures: for example, Americans prefer to stand sideways to each other during a normal conversation, in our country it is considered disrespectful.

proxemics: a way to use space. The distance between the interlocutors depends on the age, gender of the communicants, and the degree of familiarity between them. Biological roots are also visible here (love - friendship - goodwill - ill will - enmity). Usually, an under-known person is 'held' at arm's length. 'Get into trust' can be, getting closer and closer: remember the behavior of the Little Prince in relation to Fox. By the way, intercultural differences in proxemics often lead to misunderstanding, to communication failures between politicians and businessmen. Of course, this refers to the “illiterate” people in a communicative attitude. There are some video footage showing accelerated reproduction such as, for example, a Japanese politician or businessman, “jump back” from their European interlocutor. The point here is not at all in bad form or in ill will. These frames demonstrate the semiotic incompatibility of proxy systems. A practical conclusion for the communicator: it is necessary, at the same time with a foreign language, to study the implicit culture of this nation, otherwise even in body postures you will see an “accent”.

• • tactile communication: touch, pat, etc. The use of tactile elements of communication speaks of mutual relations, status, and degree of friendship between communicators. This method is mostly observed in primates, in human society - in women and children: walking on the arm and in the arms, hand on the shoulder, tapping on the shoulder, on the cheek, poking in the side. There are also serious intercultural differences. For example, the Chinese and the British are considered the least 'touching' peoples, so the ineptly used tactile communicative act against a representative of these peoples can even be perceived as an insult.

The phonetic and physiological continuum and the continuum of body movements are similar. However, for the first, its division into phonemes occurred not only at the implicit level of the naive user, but also at the research level. The division of gestures into kines is still quite arbitrary. At the same time, analogies with verbal language are visible. There are obvious symbolic differences in body postures and the positions of its organs (arm, head, fingers, for example: binary opposing thumb up vs. thumb down). At the same time, the study seems to be hampered by the fact that the differential features of the kinetic language have not been completely managed to be separated from the constitutive ones. There are also territorial and social differences in the use of body language (like dialects and sociolects of ordinary language, as well as differences in national languages). In this case, general and universal elements of body movements are distinguished. So, G. Hughes compiled a dictionary of human poses (a fragment of it is given in the figure).

Paralingue talks about how to interpret words, gives additional information to interpretation, sometimes turning the signs on the opposite. Paralinguistic elements - unlike actual gestures - accompany speech, complement the emotional side of communication (whistle in surprise, sigh from despair or admiration: in Finland even some interjections are pronounced while inhaling). Linguistic suprasegmental means can also be attributed to paralinguistic moments: intonation, tonal level of voice, even loudness — expressing, for example, anger. Paralinguistic means can tell a lot about the momentary state of the interlocutor (calm, anxiety, confidence, fatigue, etc.).

Clothing and appearance (hairstyle, jewelry, cosmetics, etc.) speaks about more stable things, such as the identity of the communicator, his or her social status, role, work. Not without reason heroes of soap operas are dressed symbolically, reflecting the properties of a certain social group. Similarly, in commercials: a housewife, a teacher, a mother of two children, a businessman, etc. In modern reality, certain stereotypes are being developed that are characterized precisely by clothing: a businessman in a red jacket and sneakers, an Olympic reserve with a grave in a theater is ubiquitous and, for the most part, inappropriate wearing of brand-name track suits.

The nature of the person is reflected in color preferences. It is believed that the extrovert prefers brighter colors. But color can also be related to the context of communication: a wedding or a funeral, a lecture or a dissertation defense, and a role: the bride or groom, a politician or a journalist. And in this layer of implicit culture there are intercultural differences. So, in Africa, white is the sign of mourning, not black.

Color preferences can tell a lot about a person. In Psychology, the Luscher test is well known; studies of the color of Goethe and others are interesting. At the same time, interest in the so-called 'practical psychology' in recent years has led to the emergence of various kinds of compilation works published in glossy-colored covers and published in magazines for unassuming public. . The authors of this kind of literature, not being psychologists by training and having a very poor understanding of scientific research methods, retell the publications of famous psychologists, adding 'popular beliefs' and their own inventions. In itself, this phenomenon (a dilettante's approach to science) is of interest to sociology and communication theory, reflecting a specific need of society and the individual. The future specialist in communication technology should be very careful when using such literature. It is always better to contact the original source and a professional.

Since ancient times, people decorate clothing or body with various objects. However, the aesthetic function is not always leading. Basically, we have signs of a cultural code, both explicit (the king’s crown or a spouse’s engagement ring) and implicit ones (the preference of one or another kind of jewelry says a lot about social status: the little fool loves the little red shred ). There are decorations that in everyday life are called signs: insignia in the army, political signs or badges (red carnation, blue carnation, apple), memorabilia and medals. The main functions of these signs of non-verbal communication are associated with the unification of people into groups and the differentiation of their social status (colonel vs. major).

2. The structure of speech communication.

We have already seen that something more happens in interpersonal communication than just the transmission and perception of words. Even the exact meaning of words arises from a single complex of speech and non-verbal means, which are used to strengthen and confirm words, and even to mock your own words and give them the opposite meaning. At the same time, words taken on their own are still the main component of communication.

Verbal communication is the most studied type of human communication. In addition, it is the most universal way to transfer thoughts. Verbal human language can 'translate' a message created using any other sign system. For example, the signal red light translates as 'passage closed', 'stop'; raised up finger, covered by the palm of the other hand, as 'I ask for an extra minute break' in sports, etc.

The speech side of communication has a complex multi-layered structure (from the differential feature of the phoneme to text and intertext) and performs in various stylistic varieties (various styles and genres, spoken and literary language, dialects and sociolects, etc.). All speech characteristics and other components of the communicative act contribute to its (successful or unsuccessful) implementation. Talking with others, we choose from an extensive inventory. (in modern linguistics they sometimes say: fields) of possible means of verbal and non-verbal communication are the means that seem to us most suitable for expressing our thoughts in a given situation. This is a socially significant choice. This process is both infinite and infinitely diverse.

The poet O. Mandelstam wrote: “I forgot the word that I wanted to say: the blind swallow will return to the palace of shadows ...”. How many such swallows do not reach the goal, and how many cannot leave their nests in the 'shadow palace' - so much inaccurate statements and unspoken thoughts drag on us in life and communication.

The system providing speech communication - human language - is studied by linguistics. Unable to present the theory of language in the framework of the communication manual, we recommend referring to textbooks on linguistics. It is believed that there are two 'classical' textbooks: a textbook by A.A. Reformatsky and a textbook by Yu.S. Maslov . In addition to linguistics itself, verbal communication is studied in related sciences: social linguistics and psycholinguistics, as well as in psychology itself.

Let us dwell on the most common communicative characteristics of speech. From the point of view of communication theory, speech is included in a single communicative act and exhibits the following properties:

speech is part of the communicative culture and the culture in general,

speech contributes to the formation of the social role ( social identity ) of the communicant,

Mutual public recognition of communicants is achieved through speech.

in social communications are created social values.

В речевой коммуникации мы еще раз убеждаемся, что слова не являются просто знаками для обозначения предметов или классов предметов. Говоря, используя слова в коммуникации, мы создаем целые системы идей, верований, мифов, свойственных определенному сообществу, определенной культуре (примеры: establishment, авось, партия) это особенно хорошо видно при попытке перевести высказывания с этими словами. Иногда иностранцу приходится читать целую лекцию о межкультурных соответствиях, прежде чем он начнет правильно понимать и употреблять даже кажущиеся схожими слова и стоящие за ними понятия. Даже вполне переводимые лексемы имеют разную культурную, и следовательно, коммуникативную ценность ( хлеб, деньги ). Внутри одной культуры также можно увидеть различия в употреблении слов ( unambiguous ).

The way we speak gives an idea to another communicator, about who we are. You can reformulate the well-known saying: Tell me, and I will tell you who you are . This is especially obvious when the communicator plays a certain social role (the team captain, the head of the company, the school director - remember the movie “Effigy”: both facial expressions, appearance and intonation of greeting correspond to the status of the director and the idea of ​​this role).

Even a temporary way out of the role (for example, in the political sphere: a president who plays tennis or sits at his desk, talking heart-to-heart with the people) is significant against the background of the main set of roles for a particular communicative personality. Paralinguistic means are also significant here, as is evident even from the metaphor of a condescending tone. It is known that N.S. Khrushchev once condescended (went down just one step) to Mao Zedong, which marked the beginning of an era of cooling in relations between China and the USSR. In August 1991, a rather frivolous conversation with the first and last president of the USSR A. Borovik was accompanied by a pat on the shoulder of Gorbachev by a journalist. Violation of status roles occurs simultaneously in the verbal and non-verbal spheres and is symbolic: the violation itself carries new information.

Using speech, we can recognize the social status of the interlocutor, or not recognize it. We address Your Majesty to the current monarch: Your Majesty, but after the revolution, supporters of the previous monarchical power continue to use the verbal sign of the interlocutor's status, emphasizing their loyalty to him and counteracting the changed reality with these words. The status function of speech is also visible in an address to a senior in rank in the army: Yes, sir! is said even when addressing a female soldier. Compare the different status of the words: Hello! and Hello! Status is brought up: talking to children (lisp or 'as with an adult') contributes to the formation of certain traits in a developing personality.

The choice of verbal means, as well as the accompanying non-verbal ones, contributes to the formation and understanding of certain social situations. A compliment to a woman does not always really mean that she looks good. This 'communicative move', rather, establishes different social statuses of the communicants. Conversations in a female and male company are conducted with a different set of acceptable lexical units; In mixed company, the use of rude or abusive language is also not allowed, although the latter is currently only true for a certain age and socio-cultural group.

3. Successful communication and communication skills

The behavior of communicants in the communication process pursues certain goals (see Lecture 3). To achieve communicative goals, we use certain techniques, which (depending on the level of consideration) are called communicative strategies, communicative tactics, and communicative skills.

A communicative goal is (following E.V. Klyuev) a strategic result, which a communicative act is aimed at. To declare impeachment, to file for divorce, to undertake obligations for after-sales service - these are the key speech components of communicative behavior in a given situation, realizing one or another communicative intention, that is, the intention of an individual communicant (or a corporate communicant, introducing himself as an individual) to carry out one or another action through a communicative act or with its help.

Communicative goals and intentions are not realized in a vacuum, but in the environment of intentions and goals of other communicants, therefore there is always a gap between word and deed. For example, to carry out deprivatization - the intention of left radicals - will certainly meet resistance from the opposite intention of other participants in the social communicative process, the social communicative environment.

In the communicative environment, communicative conventions regulated by society are established during a certain period. Thus, we observe the highest degree of regulation of communicative conventions in the legislative assemblies of a number of countries (stages of passing bills); compare this with a rally, where decisions are made ‘by voice’ (a term of the State Duma, showing the communicative incompetence and underdevelopment of Russian democracy).

Judicial or scientific speech is another example of a convention that also differs between national communicative cultures. Thus, in the United States, judicial-legal discourse is part of a common and even mass culture. Remember how many feature films are about litigation. In Russia, a person is found guilty at the time of the accusation: There is no smoke without fire. Thus, words are taken as proof, not deeds — a clear case of semiotic idealism and communicative incompetence. It turns out that the mythological "justice" leads to impunity searches and detention on the streets of completely innocent people. But these cases prove that the word is in fact a matter of speech.

A communicative strategy is a part of communicative behavior or communicative interaction, in which a series of different verbal and non-verbal means is used to achieve a certain communicative goal, as EV Klyuev writes, “a strategic result, to which the communicative act is directed”. Strategy - a general framework, the outline of behavior, which may include deviations from the goal in separate steps. Sellers, in particular, are taught strategies for selling goods through communication with the buyer. Sometimes the seller may speak poorly about a particular product. But he implicitly advertises another existing product! A seller (especially a street distributor) can use non-verbal receptions (an offer together to see a brochure with illustrations - penetration into the personal space of a potential buyer). Every day we use a certain greeting strategy for different people and for different purposes of communication with these people. Many strategies ritualize, turn into speech conventions and lose their 'rhematism', informational content. Violation of conventions, on the contrary, can be considered as a “message”. If you are often late, and justify your lateness, for example, by poor transport performance, then you are no longer believing. When this actually happens, your truth is not believed. In this case, you can even come up with a paradoxical principle: lie to believe. The analogies in politics suggest themselves: the same argument or slogan cannot be repeated: it loses its informational content and the degree of confidence in it also falls: Words decay like a dress.

Communicative tactics, as opposed to strategy, as a general outline of communicative behavior, are considered as a set of practical moves in the real process of speech interaction. Communication tactics - a smaller scale consideration of the communicative process, compared with the communicative strategy. It does not relate to the communicative purpose, but to a set of individual communicative intentions.

Communicative intention (task) - a tactical move, which is a practical means of moving towards the corresponding communicative goal. Recall the previous example with a 'temporary frankness' in front of the buyer. The same “temporary frankness” is contained in the rhetorical figures of politicians who confess: “We are not angels, we are simple people,” although the communicative goal is to convince the voter precisely of the “divine” exclusivity of the potential elect. For this, non-verbal elements of communication can also be used ( simple clothes, the president at home and sweaters and other image-making techniques). The intent and purpose are different here, but ultimately, as part of the strategy, intent contributes to the realization of a common goal.

E.V. Klyuev offers the following scheme, which allows to understand the relationship of the elements of strategy and tactics in the communicative process: “using communicative competence, the speaker sets a communicative goal (determining or not determining the communicative perspective, that is, the ability to cause the desired consequences in reality) and following a certain communicative intention, it develops a communicative strategy that is converted into communicative tactics (or not transformed, or transformed non-successfully) as a joint Bathiness of communicative intentions (tasks), adding to the communicative experience of the speaker.

Communicative experience is directly related to the formation of a communicative personality. The meanings of words are stored as a memory of past contexts and the results of their use - and communicative experience is understood as a set of ideas about successful and unsuccessful communicative tactics, leading or not leading to the implementation of appropriate communicative strategies.

Success and failure are intertextual, it is included in the context of today. So, at the dawn of capitalism, advertising Our range even wider (a real example of their Voronezh newspaper Va-Bank ) could be successful, now it is an unsuccessful tactical move that can even destroy the entire advertising strategy of a trading company, undermining its credibility as a source of information. No wonder one of the textbooks on PR is called Farewell to Hype (Goodbye, Hyperbole). In the first election campaigns in post-communist Russia, populist slogans found 'sales'. Now a similar approach seems less and less effective.

The sociohistorical change in the success of communicative strategies confirms once again the need for constant research in the field of communication theory and technology. Analysis of communicative behavior, depending on its tasks, may include various aspects and parameters. In the book of G.G.Pocheptsova, for example, the communicative behavior of political leaders is analyzed and psychological analysis (motives, ideas, cognitive style, temperament and interpersonal characteristics), motivational analysis (striving to achieve results, establishing close relationships, obtaining and implementing power, the correlation of motives with behavior), cognitive and operational analysis (the system and structure of attitudes, the model of reality, and its more specific embodiment in the preferences and actions of nicative personality, narrative analysis (here the time and the concept of a sequence of communicative actions are introduced into the model; communication is considered as a text event, as a 'fairy tale' with its heroes and villains, this method originates from the well-known researcher of the structure of fairy tales V.Ya. popular in the analysis of television and radio news), binary content analysis (speech analysis, discourse on the +/– principle), role analysis (roles of political figures, for example, according to Bern: kinder surprise, boys in pink pieces anish )

Specialist in PR should possess the basic concepts and basic concepts of various types of analysis of the communicative behavior of the individual. Comprehensive, multivariate analysis most fully allows you to 'decompose' the continuum of communicative activity. The reality is that the parameters and factors taken into account in different types of analysis act simultaneously or simultaneously, or sequentially, but in any case are undifferentiated. The task of the researcher is to see in this conglomerate individual causes and factors in accordance with methods known to him. In the concrete situation, a communication specialist may even need to create new approaches and methods of analysis.

A specialist working in a particular area of ​​public communication must have certain communication skills, that is, he must

be able to effectively form a communicative strategy;

be able to effectively use a variety of tactical methods of communication;

be able to effectively represent yourself (or your company) as a participant in the communication process.

Efficiency here refers to the correlation of verbal and non-verbal techniques with the goals and objectives of communication, communicative intention and perspective, systemic cohesion of the elements of a communicative strategy, practical feasibility of individual tactical moves.

4. Models of communicative personality. ... their attitudes towards us and, more importantly, their behavior towards us. Peter honey

The American expert on the theory of communication, P. Hani, writes about the possible effect of our addressing the message recipient, that their attitude towards us, and, more importantly, their behavior towards us is determined, to a large extent, by our attitude towards them. This is in full accordance with the dialogical, interactive principle of communication. People do not mechanically transmit information to each other, in their joint activities they create the consequences (perspectives) of communication.

The communication is carried out by individuals, they use their communicative competence, determine the strategy and tactics of communicative behavior, accumulate a certain experience. Of course, each of them does it individually, which allows us to speak about a communicative personality. By communicative personality, we mean the totality of individual communicative strategies and tactics, cognitive, semiotic, motivational preferences that have been formed in communication processes as the individual's communicative competence , his 'communicative passport' (I.A. Sternin), business card (I.Gorelov) . Communicative personality - the content, center and unity of communicative acts aimed at other communicative personalities, communicative activist .

The exchange of 'courtesies' between representatives of certain social groups (prisoners, youth and adolescents, scholars), their use of fierce vocabulary, slang, regionalism, professionalism, and other stylistic means serve both a phatic, contact-restoring function, and the preservation of an appropriate medium of communication (implication: you one blood, you and me ). In the series Beavis & Butthead is often observed violation of mutual identification, failure to communicate due to the lack of communication experience among adolescents, lack of socialization, primarily in the communication plan.

The term 'person' is a translation of the Latin word persona - actor's mask. Even ancient philosophers distinguished man as a physical body, a center of physiological processes, and as an aggregate of human features themselves. Thus, the soul and body in man were contrasted.

R. Descartes

Aristotle wrote that the soul is the beginning of living beings, in nature, some of its manifestations constitute its own states, while others are inherent - through the medium of the soul - to living beings. The juxtaposition of the two principles, the material and the spiritual, the dualism of body and soul, is characteristic of the Cartesian paradigm, named for R. Descartes . The non-Cartesian paradigm does not put a rigid boundary between the spiritual and the corporeal, subject and object, it permits their dialogical interaction and mutual influence.

By definition, the philosophical encyclopedic dictionary (1998), personality is the content, center and unity of acts, intentionally directed at other personalities. Many modern definitions of personality are based on the concepts of the dialogic (non-Cartesian) paradigm, the foundations of which are connected with the works of our compatriot, literary critic, linguist and philosopher M.M.Bakhtin. As each subject owns an object, and each person owns another person, to everyone I belong to you . The human individual, endowed with will and aspirations, moods and assessments, is connected with other similar human individuals who have their own manner of addressing, saying, behavior (including speech).

Communicative behavior of humanity also consists of common moments in the behavior of individuals. There are only separate individuals whose communicative behavior constitutes a single language. But the behavior of the individual reflects the properties of the natural and social (including communicative) environment. The non-Cartesian paradigm also speaks of the embodiment ( embodiment ; hexis 'Hexis' in the theory of the French sociologist P. Bourdieu) of natural and social structures in a separate individual. The peculiarity of the formal and stylistic characteristics of the speech of an individual speaker of a given language is called idiolect.

The communicative personality is heterogeneous, it may include various roles (voices, polyphony of personality), while maintaining its identity . Now they say that a communicative person is included in various discourses , for example: Chekhov as a writer and as a doctor. The same person can be a student, a seller, a buyer, a racketeer, a victim, a child, a parent. But at the same time, the techniques of communicative tactics, for example, deception or persuasion, extortion or requests, will be similar in different role contexts, but in close communicative situations. They will differ in individual coloring (student-troechnik and teacher-troechnik).

The defining parameters for the communicative personality are three: motivational, cognitive and functional . VPKonetskaya builds on these three parameters his two-step model of communicative personality. Similar parameters are highlighted by R. Dimbleby and G. Burton: needs, knowledge – belief complex – stereotypes – assumptions – values– (previous) experience, feedback in the communication process (perception of the interlocutor and his messages, self-presentation, choice and mutual evaluation of roles, emotional state).

The motivational parameter is determined by communication needs and occupies a central place in the structure of the communicative personality. If there is no need, then there is no communication either, or there is a pseudo-communication, most likely determined by a psychological need in the communication process as such, and not in the transfer of a message (loneliness, game socialization, etc.). Visibility of communication or the game of communication is observed in some programs MTV ( Daytime Caprice ) , in some chatrooms on the Internet. These are, basically, the 'newspaper internet' (correspondence via free ads) in the newspaper from Lizyukov Street, Soroka, etc. , American small talk, carried out not so much by content as by the formal scheme of the three-A principle: answer - add - ask.

Based on the communicative need, a communicative attitude is formed, which is pursued by the communicative person for a certain segment of communicative activity (the means of communication and tactics vary).

The cognitive parameter includes a variety of characteristics that form the inner world in the process of accumulation of an individual's cognitive experience: knowledge of communicative codes, ability to perform introspection and autoreflection, that is, self-observation and self-awareness, metacommunicative skills, ability to adequately assess the cognitive and communicative horizon of a communicative partner, myths and prejudices, stereotypes and beliefs. The success of communication, the impact on the interlocutor largely depend on the compatibility of the cognitive characteristics of communicants.

The functional parameter includes three characteristics that determine the communicative competence of the individual: practical possession of verbal and non-verbal means for the implementation of communicative functions; the ability to vary the communicative means in the process of communication in connection with changes in the situation and conditions of communication; discourse construction in accordance with code norms and etiquette rules.

The cognitive parameter in this model is the link between the cognitive experience and competence of the communicative personality, its communicative need and the specific communicative situation.

Depending on how you use your communicative potential, a person can be assigned to a particular type. We always involuntarily “adjust” to the interlocutor in the process of communication, i.e. we carry out metacommunicative function. An experienced specialist in the field of communication must constantly consciously perform this function (directing attention to the code and the process of communication, correcting its progress). One of the parameters on the control of the communicator is the type of the interlocutor. What are the characteristics of the main types of communicants?

Interpersonal communication - Dominant communicator: seeks to seize the initiative, does not like when he is interrupted, sharp, mocking, speaks louder than others. To 'fight' such a communicator, it is useless to use his own techniques; it is better to adopt a strategy of 'speech exhaustion' (start speaking after a pause, quickly formulate your position, questions, requests, use 'cumulative tactics').

Interpersonal communication - intellect.icu portal Mobile communicator: easily enters into a conversation, moves from topic to topic, speaks a lot, interestingly and with pleasure, does not get lost in an unfamiliar communication situation. Sometimes - in your own interests - you should return him to the desired topic.

Interpersonal communication - intellect.icu portal Rigid communicator: has difficulties in the contact-establishing phase of communication, then becomes clear and logical. It is recommended to use the strategy of 'warming up' the partner (introductory part 'about the weather', phatic communication).

Interpersonal communication - intellect.icu portal Introverted communicator: does not strive to take the initiative, gives it away, is shy and modest, constrained in an unexpected communication situation. In communication with him, you should constantly carry out the phatic function in verbal and non-verbal form, do not interrupt.

An interesting classification of types of communication in a social group can be gleaned from the theory of the American psychologist Eric Berne. States of the Self or ego-states: Parent, Adult and Child. According to Berne, people move from one state to another with varying degrees of ease.

Interpersonal communication - intellect.icu portal Parent: critical (manager: When will you finally start making normal certificates? I can't do your work for you all the time!) and nurturing and caring (teacher to student: Don't worry, you'll definitely remember everything now! manager: Let me do it for you!).

Interpersonal communication - intellect.icu portal Adult: company consultant to client: Are you satisfied with this solution? employee to director: I'm ready to provide you with the information by Thursday!

Interpersonal communication - intellect.icu portal Child: adaptable (employee to manager: How should I have written the certificate? I completely agree with you!) and natural (company employee to client: This will be a wonderful trip! colleague to colleague: Well, old man, you're a genius!).

An individual and a communicative personality are not the same thing. Different personalities can coexist in one individual. The concept of multiple personalities (polyphony, according to Bakhtin) is also widespread in psychology. The extreme manifestation of this is clinical split personality (mental disorder), but a healthy person also manifests himself in different spheres, in different 'linguistic markets' (in the terminology of P. Bourdieu). Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky distinguishes types of linguistic personality depending on the spheres of literature. For all types of oral literature, the creator of speech coincides with the linguistic personality - the individual speech-maker. In written literature, with the handwritten technique, the creator of speech also coincides with the individual (except for documents). In documents, the creator of speech can be collegial, one document can be created by different legal entities (a copy of a diploma: a university + a notary). Such a linguistic personality can be called collegial. In printed literature, the work of the author and the publisher (creation and replication of the text) is divided. Here we have a cooperative speech-maker. Mass communication texts combine features of collegial and cooperative speech activity (news agency + editorial staff + publishing house), therefore, we have a collegial-cooperative linguistic personality. Computer science as a type of literature contains three types of activity (abstracting and annotation as a complex work on the analysis of the primary text and the synthesis of the secondary + information search + automated control), therefore it is a collective speech activity.

So, from the point of view of the sociology of speech, literature arises in the division of labor, and the individual and the speaker do not coincide. For example, documents: the office transmits, sends out, reproduces, stores, encourages reading documents and composing new ones, implementing external rules of literature in their activities; document executors compose and read documents, applying internal rules of literature; a more fractional division of labor: verification of a document with signatures, visas, preliminary work embodied in other texts, etc. Another example: the creation of a name (the creator of the name, the approver of the name and the user of the name, i.e., parents – the registry office – everyone else). But one person can combine these functions at different times (the registry office employee – the parent – ​​the user). Individual functions can be socially institutionalized. Thus, the right to name, say, a ship (performative), is not given to everyone, and the performers of these functions become an embodied function. That is why they are called: functionaries. Embodied

The collegial communicative personality is also a function: the Academy, the editorial board of a newspaper, the party and the government (cf. the terms 'natural person' and 'legal entity').

The communicative personality is the most important component of personality in general, since communication takes up 80% of all human existence (listening - 45%, speaking - 30%, reading - 16%, writing - 9%).