1. Periodization of speech development. Characteristics of the successive stages of speech development in childhood

In his psycholinguistic concept of AA “speech ontogenesis,” Leontiev relies on the methodological approaches of outstanding linguists and psychologists of the XIX – XX centuries - V. Humboldt, PO Jacobson, L.S. Vygotsky, V.V. Vinogradov, A.N. Gvozdyev et al. As one of the fundamental conceptual provisions of AA Leontiev, the following statement by V. Humboldt states: "The assimilation of language by children is not an adaptation of words, their folding in memory and revival using speech, but the development of language ability with age and exercise" (63 , p. 237).

The process of formation of speech activity (and, accordingly, mastering the system of the native language) in ontogenesis in the concept of “speech ontogenesis” of AA Leontiev is divided into a number of consecutive periods, or “stages”:

1st — preparatory (from the moment of birth to 1 year);

2nd - preschool (from 1 year to 3 years);

3rd - preschool (from 3 to 7 years);

4th - school (from 7 to 17 years).

The first stage of speech formation covers the first three years of a child’s life. The development of children's speech up to three years in turn (in accordance with the traditional approach adopted in psychology) is divided into three main stages:

1) the pre-speech stage (the first year of life) in which periods of walking and babbling are distinguished, 2) the stage of primary language acquisition (pre-grammatical) is the second year of life and 3) the stage of mastering grammar (third year of life). A.A. Leontyev points out that the time frames for these stages are extremely variable (especially closer to three years); in addition, acceleration takes place in the development of children's speech - the shift of age characteristics to earlier age stages of ontogenesis (133, p. 176).

Language, as a means of implementing the PD, as noted above, is a system of special marks and rules of their combination. In addition to the inner content, the signs of the language have an external form - sound and written. The child begins to master the language with the development of the sound form of the expression of a language mark.

The patterns of formation of the phonetic side of speech in the ontogeny of speech activity have been the subject of study by many authors: PM Boskis, A.N. Gvozdeva, G.A. Kasha, F.A. Pay, E.M. Vereshchagin, D. Slobina and others. The data of these studies are summarized and analyzed in the works of Russian psycholinguists: AA. Leontyev, AM Shakhnarovich, V.M. Bel-Lenin and others. We point out some of these patterns.

Mastering the articulation of speech sounds is a very difficult task, and although the child begins to “practice” in making sounds from the age of one and a half to two months, it takes three to four years to master speech-speaking skills. All normally developing children have a certain consistency in mastering the sound form of the language and in the development of pre-verbal reactions: gut, pipe, babble, and its “sophisticated version” —th . modulated babble (167, 183, 230).

A child is born, and he marks his appearance with a cry. Scream - the first voice response of the child. Both the cry and the crying of the child intensify the activity of the articulation, voice, and respiratory parts of the speech apparatus.

For a child of the first year of life, “speech training” in the production of sounds is a kind of game, an involuntary action that gives the child pleasure. A child stubbornly, for many minutes, can repeat the same sound and thus exercise in its articulation.

The period of stealing is observed in all children. Already at 1.5 months, and then at 2–3 months, the child manifests voice reactions in the reproduction of such sounds as aa-bm-bm, blu, y-gu, bu , etc. It is they who later become the basis for the development of articulate speech. Guessing (according to their phonetic characteristics) is the same for all children of the peoples of the world.

At 4 months, the sound combinations become more complicated: new ones appear, such as gn-agn, la-ala, ph, etc. The child, in the process of stealing, seems to play with his articulation apparatus, repeats the same sound several times, while enjoying . A child glitches when it is dry, slept, fed and healthy. If someone from the family is nearby and begins to “talk” with the baby, he will listen to the sounds with pleasure and “pick up” them, as it were. Against the background of such a positive emotional contact, the kid begins to imitate adults, trying to diversify his voice with expressive intonation.

According to a number of experimental studies (247, 332, 334, and others), by the age of 6 months the sounds uttered by the children begin to resemble the sounds of their native language. This was verified in the following psycholinguistic experiment. Subjects who were carriers of different languages ​​(English, German, Spanish, Chinese) were presented with tape recordings of shouting, chilling, “flute” and babbling of children brought up in appropriate language environments. It was only when listening to the tape recordings of six-seven-month-old children that the subjects could with a high degree of certainty learn the sounds of their native language (332, 333).

During the period of chilling (voice modulation of individual sounds, according to their characteristics corresponding to vowels), the sound side of children's speech is devoid of four major features inherent in speech sounds: a) correlation; b) “fixed” localization (“stable” articulation); c) the constancy of articulation positions (there is a large and largely random "spread" of articulations); d) relevance, i.e., the conformity of these articulations with the orthoepic (phonetic) norms of the native language (133).

Only in the period of babble (which is expressed in pronouncing combinations of sounds corresponding to a syllable and producing different syllable series in terms of volume and structure) do these normative features of sound pronunciation gradually begin to appear. During this period, a “syntagmatic organization” of speech is taking shape: a “structure” of a syllable is formed (the appearance of “proto-consonant” and “protoglasny”), a division of speech flow into syllable quanta is observed, which indicates the formation of a physiological mechanism of slogan formation in a child.

After 2–3 months, the child’s speech displays a new “quality”. A peculiar equivalent of a word appears, namely, a closed sequence of syllables, combined by accentuation, melody, and unity of the structure of the articulation organs. This structured sound production (the so-called pseudoword) is usually “choreic”: “words” are stressed on the first “syllable”, regardless of the peculiarities of the child’s native language. Pseudology does not yet have an object relatedness (the first and main component of the meaning of a full-fledged word) and serve solely to express this or that “vital” need or not yet fully conscious “evaluative” attitude to the outside world. “But this is enough for the sounds to become constant, for a certain pseudoword to be fixed to the expression of a certain function (a typical example is [n'a] as a reaction to feeding and a signal of hunger)” [133, p. 177].

With the normal development of the child, the “gnawing” at 6–7 months gradually turns into babbling. At this time, children utter the type syllables like ba-ba, dya-dya, de-da , etc., relating them to certain people around them. In the process of communicating with adults, the child gradually tries to imitate intonation, tempo, rhythm, melody, and also to reproduce rows of syllables; The volume of babbled words that the child tries to repeat after adults is expanding.

At 8.5–9 months, babble already has a modulated character with a variety of intonations. But not all children have this process: with a decrease in the auditory function, the walking “fades out”, and this is often a diagnostic symptom (183, 232, etc.).

At the age of nine to ten months, there is a qualitative leap in the child's speech development. The first “normative”, “subject-related” words (corresponding to the lexical system of the given language) appear. The circle of articulations does not expand for two to three months, nor is there any assignment of sounds to new objects or phenomena: the identity of using a pseudoword (more precisely, a “protislo”) is ensured not only and not so much by the identity of articulation as by the sound identity of the whole word. At the age of 10–12 months, the child uses all the nouns (which are practically the only part of the speech represented in the child’s “grammar”) in the nominative case in the singular. Attempts to connect two words in the phrase (Mom, give!) Appear later (about a year and a half). Then the imperative mood of the verbs is assimilated (Go and go! Give and give!). It is traditionally considered, [224] that when the plural forms appear, mastering the grammar begins. Depending on the individual differences in the rates of psychophysical and cognitive development, all children advance differently in their language development.

The “suspension” of the phonetic development during this period of “speech ontogenesis” (for a period of 3-4 months) is associated with a significant increase in the number of words in the active vocabulary and, most importantly, with the appearance of the first true generalizations corresponding to the concept of L. S. Vygotsky , “Syncretic [225] adhesion of objects according to random features” (45). A language mark appears in the child's speech. The word begins to act as a structural unit of language and speech. “Whereas before, individual pseudowords arose against the background of semantically and articulatory undifferentiated babblet“ speech, ”now the whole child’s speech becomes verbal” (133, p. 177).

The child’s assimilation of the sequence of sounds in a word is the result of the development of a system of conditional relations. The child imitatively borrows certain sound combinations (variants of sound pronunciation) from the speech of people around them. At the same time mastering the language as an integral system of signs, the child masters the sounds immediately as phonemes. For example, the phoneme [p] can be pronounced by a child in different ways - in a normative version, varying or burr (velar and uvular version of rotacism). But in the Russian language, these differences are not essential for communication, because they do not lead to the formation of words of different meanings or different forms of words. Despite the fact that the child does not yet pay attention to the various variants of pronouncing phonemes, he quickly grasps the essential signs of the sounds of his language.

According to a number of studies, phonemic hearing is formed at a very early age (114, 182, 230, etc.). First, the child learns to separate the sounds of the surrounding world (the creaking of the door, the sound of rain, the meowing of a cat) from the sounds of the speech facing him. The child is actively looking for the sound designation of the elements of the surrounding world, picking them up from the mouths of adults (182, 232, etc.). However, he uses the phonetic means of the language borrowed from adults “in his own way”.

The presence of such laws suggests that the child in the process of learning a language creates its own intermediate language system. Subsequently, the voicing (determined by the sonority of the voice) becomes a contrasting differential sign of speech sound, which will allow the child to double his supply of classes of consonants. A child is not able to borrow such a rule from adults. The reason is not that the child cannot pronounce, say, a sound [e] - he knows how to pronounce it, but believes that this sound can stand only at the beginning of a word. Later, this “system of rules” is adjusted, and the child “brings” it to the adult language system (183, 230). When it comes to the phonetic side of speech, it is clear that the child does not even need to be able to pronounce the sound in order to adequately perceive its differential features. This is illustrated by the following example of an adult-child dialogue:

- What is your name, girl?

- Malina (i.e. Marina).

- Raspberries?

- No, Malina.

- Well, I say - Malina!

- Malina, Malina!

- Oh, so your name is Marina?

- Yes, raspberries!

From the above example, it is clear that a child who cannot pronounce the sound [p] adequately differentiates him with the opposition sound. Therefore, he rejects the adult imitation of his pronunciation, although he himself cannot yet express in his pronunciation the distinction between the correct and non-standard options.

Based on the above, it can be concluded that at first the child masters the purely external (i.e. sound) structure of the sign, which later, in the process of operating with signs, leads the child to the correct functional use of it.

In the period of the initial mastering of the language, the volume of babbled and full-valued words in the child’s active vocabulary expands. This stage is characterized by increased attention of the child to the speech of others, his speech activity increases markedly. The words used by the child are often “polysemantic”, “semantically polyphonic”; at the same time the same word or combination of the child means several concepts: “bang” - fell, lies, stumbled; “Give” - give, give, bring; "Bibi" - goes, lies, rolls, car, plane, bicycle.

After one and a half years, the growth of the active vocabulary of children is observed, the first sentences appear, consisting of whole words and amorphous words-roots. For example:

- Daddy, di ("Daddy, go").

- Ma, yes meat ("Mom, give the ball").

Pedagogical observations show that children do not immediately master the correct reproduction of signs of the language: some means of the language are absorbed earlier, others later. The simpler the sound and structure of the word, the easier it is remembered by the child. During this period, the following factors play an especially important role:

a) imitation (reproduction) of the speech of others;

b) the formation of a complex system of functional (psycho-physiological) mechanisms that ensure the implementation of speech;

c) the conditions in which the child is being brought up (psychological situation in the family, attentive attitude to the child, full-fledged speech environment, sufficient communication with adults).

A characteristic indicator of the active speech development of children at this stage is also their gradual assimilation of grammatical categories.

During this period, it is possible to single out a separate “substage of “ physiological agrammatism ” when a child uses in communication sentences without corresponding grammatical design of the words and phrases that make them up: Mom, give me a cookie (“ Mom, give me a doll ”); Vanya does not have ooze (“Vanya doesn’t have a car”). With normal speech development, this period lasts from several months to six months (53, 133, etc.)

In the pre - preschool period of speech development, children manifest a variety of phonetic disturbances: they skip many of the sounds of their native language (do not pronounce them at all), rearrange, and replace them with simpler articulations. These imperfections of speech (defined by the concept of “physiological dis lalia”) are explained by the age imperfections of the articulation apparatus, as well as by the insufficient level of development of phonemic perception (perception and differentiation of phonemes). At the same time, typical for this period is a fairly confident reproduction by children of the intonation-rhythmic, melodic contours of words, for example: kasyanav (cosmonaut), pyamydka (pyramid), itaya (guitar), cameo (bench), etc.

N.S. Zhukova notes that a qualitative leap in the development of a child’s speech occurs from the moment he becomes able to correctly construct simple sentences and change words by case, number, person, and time (82). By the end of the pre-preschool period, children communicate with each other and others, using the structure of a simple common sentence, while using the most simple grammatical categories of speech.

Parents and caregivers should be informed that the most favorable and intensive period in the development of a child’s speech falls in the first 3 years of life. It was during this period that all the functions of the central nervous system, which ensure the formation of a system of conditioned-reflex connections that underlie the gradually developing speech and language skills, are most easily amenable to directed pedagogical influence. If the conditions of development at this time are unfavorable, then the formation of speech activity may be delayed or even proceed in a “distorted” version (167, 230).

Many parents evaluate the speech development of their child only by the degree of correctness of sound pronunciation. Such an approach is erroneous, since an indicator of the development of children's speech is the timely development of the child's ability to use his vocabulary in verbal communication with others, in different sentence structures. Already by 2.5–3 years of age, children use three-four-word sentences, using various grammatical forms (go - go - go - do not go; doll - doll - doll).

The preschool stage of “speech ontogeny” is characterized by the most intensive speech development of children. Often there is a qualitative leap in vocabulary expansion. The child begins to actively use all parts of speech; in the structure of language ability developing during this period, word-formation skills are gradually formed.

The process of mastering a language is so dynamic that after three years children with a good level of speech development communicate freely not only with the help of grammatically correctly constructed simple sentences, but also with some types of complex sentences. At this time, the active vocabulary of children reaches 3–4 thousand words, a more differentiated use of words is formed in accordance with their meanings; children master the skills of inflection and word formation.

В дошкольный период наблюдается достаточно активное становление фонетической стороны речи, дети овладевают умением воспроизводить слова различной слоговой структуры и звуконаполняемости. Если и отмечаются при этом отдельные ошибки, то встречаются они, как правило, в наиболее трудных для воспроизведения, малоупотребительных или незнакомых детям словах. При этом достаточно всего один-два раза поправить ребенка, дать образец правильного произношения и организовать небольшую «речевую практику» в нормативном произнесении слова, как ребенок достаточно быстро введет новое слово в свою самостоятельную речь.

Развивающийся навык речеслухового восприятия помогает контролировать собственное произношение и слышать ошибки в речи окружающих. В этот период у детей формируется «чувство языка» (интуитивное чувствование языковой нормы употребления единиц языка), что обеспечивает правильное употребление в самостоятельных высказываниях всех грамматических категорий и форм слов. Как отмечает Т.Б. Филичева, «если в этом возрасте ребенок допускает стойкий аграмматизм (играю батиком — играю с братиком; мамой были магазине — с мамой были в магазине; мяч упал и тоя — мяч упал со стола и т. д.), сокращения и перестановки слогов и звуков, уподобления слогов, их замены и пропуск – это является важным и убедительным симптомом, свидетельствующим о выраженном недоразвитии речевой функции. Такие дети нуждаются в систематических логопедических занятиях до поступления их в школу» (167, с. 23).

К концу дошкольного периода развития речевой деятельности дети в норме овладевают развернутой фразовой речью, фонетически, лексически и грамматически правильно оформленной. Отступления от орфоэпических норм устной речи (отдельные «фонетические» и «грамматические» ошибки) не имеют стойкого фиксированного характера и при соответствующей педагогической «корректировке» со стороны взрослых достаточно быстро устраняются.

Достаточный уровень развития фонематического слуха позволяет детям овладеть навыками звукового анализа и синтеза, что является необходимым условием усвоения грамоты в период школьного обучения.

Анализ формирования разных сторон речевой деятельности у детей с позиций психологии и психолингвистики имеет непосредственное отношение к проблеме развития связной речи в период дошкольного детства. В преддошкольном периоде речь ребенка как средство общения со взрослыми и другими детьми непосредственно связана с конкретной наглядной ситуацией общения. Осуществляясь в диалогической форме, она носит выраженный ситуативный (обусловленный ситуацией речевого общения) характер. С переходом к дошкольному возрасту, появлением новых видов деятельности, новых отношений со взрослыми происходит дифференциация функций и форм речи. У ребенка возникает форма речи-сообщения в виде рассказа-монолога о том, что с ним происходило вне непосредственного контакта со взрослым. С развитием самостоятельной практической деятельности у ребенка появляется потребность в формулировании собственного замысла, в рассуждении по поводу способа выполнения практических действий (267). Возникает потребность в речи, которая понятна из самого речевого контекста – связной контекстной речи. Переход к этой форме речи определяется прежде всего усвоением грамматических форм развернутых высказываний. Одновременно происходит и дальнейшее усложнение диалогической формы речи как в отношении ее содержания, так и в плане возросших языковых возможностей ребенка, активности и степени его участия в процессе живого речевого общения.

Features of the formation of coherent monologue speech детей дошкольного возраста с нормальным речевым развитием рассматриваются в работах Л.П. Федоренко, Ф.А. Сохина, О.С. Ушаковой и др. (159, 180 и др.). Исследователи отмечают, что элементы монологической речи появляются в высказываниях нормально развивающихся детей уже в возрасте 2–3 лет (113, 155, 159). С 5–6 лет ребенок начинает интенсивно овладевать монологической речью, так как к этому времени завершается процесс фонематического развития речи и дети в основном усваивают морфологический, грамматический и синтаксический строй родного языка (А.Н. Гвоздев, Г.А. Фомичева, В.К. Лота-рев, О.С. Ушакова и др.). Уже с 4 лет детям становятся доступны такие виды монологической речи, как описание (простое описание предмета) и повествование, а на седьмом году жизни – и короткие рассуждения (180, 230). Высказывания детей пяти-шести лет уже достаточно распространенные и информативные, в них присутствует определенная логика изложения. Нередко в их рассказах появляются элементы фантазии, желание придумать эпизоды, которых не было в их жизненном опыте еще (56, 237, 253 и др.).

Однако полноценное овладение детьми навыками монологической речи возможно только в условиях целенаправленного обучения. К необходимым условиям успешного овладения монологической речью относится формирование специальных мотивов, потребности в употреблении монологических высказываний; сформированность различных видов контроля и самоконтроля, усвоение соответствующих синтаксических средств построения развернутого сообщения. Овладение монологической речью, построением развернутых связных высказываний становится возможным с возникновением регулирующей, планирующей функций речи (Л.С. Выготский, А.Р. Лурия, А.К. Маркова и др.). Исследования ряда авторов показали, что дети старшего дошкольного возраста способны овладевать навыками планирования монологических высказываний (Л. Р. Голубева, Н.А. Орланова и др.) Это, в свою очередь, во многом определяется постепенным формированием внутренней речи ребенка. По данным А.А. Люблинской (155) и других авторов, переход внешней «эгоцентрической» речи во внутреннюю в норме происходит к 4—5-летнему возрасту.

Следует отметить, что овладение связной речью возможно только при наличии определенного уровня сформированности словарного запаса и грамматического строя речи. Многие исследователи подчеркивают важность усвоения детьми предложений различной структуры для развития связной развернутой речи ребенка (АГ. Зикеев, К.В. Комаров, Л.П. Федоренко и др.).

Как свидетельствуют исследования А.Н. Гвоздева (53), к семи годам ребенок овладевает речью как полноценным средством общения (при условии сохранности речевого аппарата, если нет отклонений в психическом и интеллектуальном развитии и ребенок воспитывается в условиях нормальной речевой и социальной среды).

During the school period of speech development, the improvement of coherent speech continues. Children consciously learn the grammatical rules for the design of free utterances, fully master sound analysis and synthesis. At this stage, written language is formed (153, 156, 275, etc.).

Развитие речи ребенка – это сложный, многообразный и достаточно длительный процесс. Дети не сразу овладевают лексико-грамматическим строем, словоизменениями, словообразованием, звукопроизношением и слоговой структурой. Одни группы языковых знаков усваиваются раньше, другие – значительно позже. Поэтому на различных стадиях развития детской речи одни элементы языка оказываются уже усвоенными, а другие – освоены лишь частично. При этом усвоение фонетического строя речи тесно связано с общим поступательным формированием лексикого и грамматического строя родного языка. В целом же онтогенез языковой способности представляет собой сложнейшее взаимодействие, с одной стороны, процесса общения взрослых и ребенка, с другой – процесса развития предметной и познавательной деятельности.