I. Types and forms of speech

In the theoretical concept of speech activity N.I. Zhinkina - I.A. Winter speech as a process of generating and perceiving speech utterances is considered at the same time as a set of ways to carry out speech activity.

The thought of the speaker and the writer can be formed and formulated in different ways using the same language tools, that is, the vocabulary and grammar of the language. In this regard, in the general structure of speech activity, along with the means, there are ways of its implementation — various ways of forming and articulating a thought. They are answered by various forms of the organization of speech communication and, accordingly, various forms of speech. There are three such forms: external oral, external written and internal speech

External (oral and written) speech is an external way of forming and formulating thoughts and transmitting information. The main forms of external oral speech are dialogic, monologue and polylogical (group) speech.

Thus, the forms of speech (RD) are “typical” methods of structural-semantic organization of speech statements based on the appropriate use of language means of constructing voice messages.

In the psychology of speech and special pedagogy, the forms of realization of RD are classified in different ways, depending on those or other significant criteria characteristics.

When classifying forms of speech according to the nature of the characters used (means of expression of thought), oral, kinetic and written speech are distinguished .

Oral speech (sound or sound) is realized by sound means. [117] These include: segment means — sounds, their series (sound combinations), and over- segment (prosodic) — tempo, rhythm, pause, accentuation, melody, and intonation — as an integrative prosodic phenomenon. In speech activity, segment and supersegmental means, as a rule, are inseparable from each other and form a simultaneous “dialectical” whole.

Oral speech has many subforms that are usually combined in speech activity; at the same time, each of them may be of decisive importance in a given situation of activity (since it serves the main purposes of speech and non-speech activity). The main options for oral speech include the following.

• Verbal codified oral speech, i.e., corresponding to known linguistic and "semantic" standards or norms. Standards can be of various kinds: for example, the so-called “literary standard (norm)”, the standard of jargons (professional, youth), etc.) Verbal codified speech in everyday situations is used more often than other forms of speech.

• Verbal non-codified verbal speech is primarily the so-called “pseudoword”. An example is the “situational” pseudoword of some of Chekhov's heroes (Chebutykin: “Tarara ... Bumbia ... I am sitting on the pedestal ...”), the pseudo word in children's poems (“Kulinaki - Pulinka, Dogs bark loudly”) non-literary neologisms of a number of writers (for example, V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky) and others.

• Sound gestures are peculiar words whose structural organization consists of non-codification (more often) and codified sounds. For example: [u'hu - “Yeah”, pronounced in the nose with closed lips] - agreement, i.e. - “yes”; [hm - "hm", in the nose] - doubt or negative attitude (with an ironic tinge); [coughing] - ironic attitude to what is happening or drawing attention to something; clatter - the “highest” assessment of something (more often - positive);

[f ut '- “fut”] - blast - “something” (and quite quickly) has disappeared, etc. [118]

• Ono sound. As the name implies, this is an imitation of sounds made by animals, people and other animate and inanimate objects: for example, imitation of a rooster crowing, crying a baby, a gun shot (“boo!”), A typewriter sound, etc.

It is customary to attribute to sound imitation only sounds similar to those mentioned above. In fact, the scope of ecstatic imitations is wider. It includes, in particular, “sound characteristics”.

• Sound characteristics [119] are imitations related to the evaluations of certain facts (phenomena). For example, with the evaluation of people: “This one came: 'and -' and - 'and” - that is, an overweight person, “heavy” weight and “heavy” gait correspond to his “heavy” character; or: “She is all the time: you-you-you-you” - a characteristic of a woman who continuously says something with a patter - “cracks”.

• Embolophrasy, i.e. insertions of non-normative and, as a rule, “semantic” language elements for a given situation into a normative literary speech: words, phrases, sounds, etc. For example, “well”, “it”, “so to speak” "," This is the most "in statements like: " Well, this, I came "; or: "September twentieth, this is the most so to speak." According to the traditionalist linguistic assessment of embolofrasia, these are “weedy” words and therefore should be expelled from speech. In fact, they often perform a “significant” role: they indicate the emotional state of the communicator and, to a certain extent, his intellectual level (the level of familiarization with culture), or, for example, that speech after a “situational” pause will be continued, etc. Of course, speech, overloaded with embolophazia, is not only ugly, but also non-normative, and sometimes difficult to perceive. In such cases, speech embolofrasia must be combated.

• Hezitations are inserts into the speech stream of uncodified sounds and their combinations. For example, sounds like [e, e, ae, w, te, etc.]. Hesitations, as well as embolofrazii, in some cases can carry useful information, for example, about the characterological features of communicators, about the syntagmatic articulation of a statement (so-called "syntagmatic expectations"), when perceiving speech, etc.

In some situations of verbal communication, we use prosodic means in their “pure” form: deliberately lengthen the pause in order to draw the attention of listeners to an important fragment of a utterance, or by transmitting some content only by melodic (intonational) speech pattern. (For example, in speech we express our joyful state or state of alarm, threat, etc.).

It should be emphasized that these subforms of oral speech in communicative situations, as a rule, are combined. He who speaks even in one phrase (and not only in the text as an expanded statement) can use such forms of oral speech as codified verbal, non-codified verbal, “sound gestures” and hezitations, etc.

Kinetic (mimic-gesticulating) speech includes expressive (expressing something, performing a denoting function) gestures, poses (mimic and pantomimic).

In speech activity, kinetic speech is most often used in conjunction with other forms of speech (mostly with oral speech), less often independently, without regard to other forms of RD implementation. In the first use case, kinetic speech, as a rule, complements (clarifies) oral or written speech, however, there are separate cases where the “quasi-language” version of speech can “dominate” over its other forms or have the same “weight” with them.

The role of this form of RD implementation in speech communication processes by different researchers is estimated ambiguously. Most experts define this role as an auxiliary, “supportive”: “non-verbal” (more precisely, primary non-verbal) communication tools perform in verbal communication specifying, complementary or “reinforcing” semantic function (A.A. Leontiev, A.R. Luria, AM Shakhnarovich, IA Zimnyaya and others). Other researchers (L.V. Sakharnyi, LR.Frumkina and one of the authors of this book, V.A. Kovshikov) rate the “communicative capabilities” of kinetic speech very highly and, on this basis, refer it to the main forms of realization of speech activity. They argue their point of view as follows.

First, the existence of oral expressive speech without kinetic is fundamentally impossible, expressive movements in the processes of speech communication (orally) are always present.

Secondly, in certain situations it is more convenient (more expedient) to use exactly kinetic speech. There are situations when kinetic speech (or a combined “verbal-gestural” communication option) can only be used (for example, with loud noise, when communicating with communicators at a considerable distance, in conditions where, for some ethical reason, oral speech cannot be used) . [122]

Thirdly, kinetic speech can, in a known way, “plan” many components of oral speech: its intonation coloring, tempo, rhythm, etc. Of course, planning oral and other forms of speech is primarily determined by the goals of a particular non-speech activity. However, the kinetic speech, entering into communication with oral speech, influences the planning of the latter, which teachers should not forget. [123]

By function, the following forms of gestures can be distinguished. [124]

Emotional gestures. They express a wide range of sthenic and asthenic emotions. For example, a splash of hands expresses surprise; frown - an expression of displeasure; clutching your head - despair; press your hand to your heart - assurance of sincerity.

Appeal gestures are used to attract attention, "appeal" or, conversely, the "recall" of communicants (raising hands, head movements, etc.).

Contact set. These are gestures of greeting, some gestures of politeness (for example, a proposal to a lady to lean on a man’s hand, etc.)

Voluntary - express a variety of acts of will. For example, an outstretched hand with an upturned palm - “give”, “give”. The latter probably also include regulatory gestures that are used to regulate the behavior of communicants. For example, with various gestures, orders are given: “Stand up!”; “Sit down!”, “Shut up!” And others.

Nominative gestures state the presence of a particular fact (object, event) in the actual (clearly perceived) subject-matter of verbal communication. At the same time, with a gesture (more often, the movement of the arms and head indicates: “This is”, “that's it.” For example: “Do we have a coffee grinder?” - A hand gesture - “Yes, there she is” (standing on the bottom shelf).

Informative gestures inform about a certain object, event, which represents a certain “value” for this act of activity. Thus, the gesture of the hand is indicated: "Look at the clouds (What they are beautiful!)"; "Ivanov has come"; "Look, Petrov is yawning."

Relative gestures are used to express a variety of relationships:

- to indicate the location ("here", "there", "behind", "at the door", etc.);

- to express actions, states, processes. For example, a gesture demonstrates that “someone” fell, runs or sleeps (the touch of a bowed head on folded palms);

- to express the presence (“yes”) or absence (“no”) of a particular fact (object) or to express consent / disagreement. (For example, famous head movements, meaning “yes” or “no.”)

This can also include gestures that serve to express attributive relations. For example, twisting a finger at the temple - "he is out of his mind"; Breeding of hands at the head - “mind chamber”.

It is difficult to draw a clear boundary between certain types of gestures, for example, it is rather difficult to distinguish between certain voluntary and regulatory gestures. At the same time, several functions often manifest themselves in the same gesture. So, the gesture of rotation with the index finger at the temple can be qualified as both emotional and relative (attribute).

Gestures, so to speak, have their own “vocabulary” and, of course, semantics. [125] They also have their own “syntax”. In most kinetic statements, it is quite strictly regulated: the “subject” is usually put in the first place, the “circumstance”, the “addition”, the “definition” and the third (or last) “predicate” only in the second place. For example, the situation of receiving a book will be expressed by gestures most likely in the following sequence: [“You are a book - give me - give”].

In his speech activity, a person uses diversely and variably oral (sound), kinetic (mimic-gestural) and written speech. For example, in the combined version, when a lecturer often speaks and writes and gestures at the same time, or in isolation (for example, one communicator, drawing the attention of another, knocks his finger on the glass of his watch, which means: “It's time to go / finish!” ). In certain forms of activity and situations, one or another form of speech becomes the most relevant and significant. In some cases, in an intimate setting, a “sound gesture” [Uhu] (i.e., “yes”) or a “soft” nod of the head may mean more than the unfolded “codified” oral utterances.

By the nature of the direction of speech: the speaker - the perceiver of speech is distinguished by expressive and impressive forms of speech.

Expressive speech - the expression (generation) of thought, in oral speech (speaking) is realized through pronunciation, articulation. In the letter - through writing, writing, in kinetic speech - the production of expressive movements (gestures).

The term impressive speech defines the processes of perception and understanding of the reversed speech (it is oppositional to all previously considered forms of speech).

In some cases, expressive and impressive speech manifest together. For example, the speaker simultaneously listens to himself. In other cases, these forms of speech may come in "contact." For example, an individual listens to his communicator and simultaneously addresses him using kinetic speech.

The level of explication (manifestation) differ:

About speech external, ie, articulated, audible, visible;

About speech hidden, i.e. speech "about myself". The degree of its development fully or almost completely corresponds to external speech;

About the so-called inner speech - “speech for oneself, speech is curtailed”, predominantly (or entirely) predicative (as defined by LS Vygotsky). This form of speech is traditionally distinguished by many scientists, although they are interpreted (scientifically) differently (81, 95, 118). [126]

Depending on the peculiarities of the rhythmic organization of speech, [127] and also on the peculiarities of its “social-semantic” purpose, prose, verse and singing speech is distinguished .

According to the degree of automation, speech is divided into:

• non-automated (this includes all variants of so-called spontaneous “creative” speech, for example, the unwritten speech of a lecturer, ordinary dialogue, a letter to a friend, etc.);

• automated (ordinal counting; listing the days of the week, as well as some “patterned” emotional exclamations: “Oh!”, “Oh well, well!”, “It cannot be!”, Proverbs, learned texts, abusive expressions, etc.).

According to the degree of independence of speech production, it is subdivided into independent, echolalic (reflected) - repetition of what was said by someone and conjugate (in a different way, “choral”) speech - simultaneous simultaneous production of speech.

Depending on the degree of activity of an individual in the planning and production of speech, they differ: active speech (planned completely independently) and reactive (programming partially and indirectly carried out by the interlocutor - communication partner, for example: Kohl came? - Came. - Was the vase on the table or in the buffet? - In the buffet); speech is automated, where programming is virtually absent.

In connection with the role of speech communication in the process of a non-speech activity, the following are distinguished: (1) speech installation (using speech, the purpose, motive and the actual installation of the forthcoming activity are determined: "We need to buy bread"; "This will be for the good"; " Attention! ”), Planning speech (planning non-speech activity:“ First you need to do it later ”[128]), speech-action (using speech, the goal of non-speech activity is achieved: there are different kinds of effects on communicators or speech is used in solving intellectual problems ); (4) controlling speech, which exercises current and final control over non-speech activities: “Right” - “wrong”.

Taking into account situational-contextual conditionality of speech, the following are distinguished:

• situational speech (its content is understandable only in the “framework” of the existing subject-event situation, for example: “The hen on the third shelf” - this is a toy that stands on a shelf in the closet);

• contextual speech (its content is understandable, based on the “context” (actual content) of a speech statement or statements, for example: “Tanya went to the bakery. There she bought a bun”; “There” - in a bakery, “she” - Tanya) ;

• The so-called “extra - constitutional”, “extra-contextual” speech (the content of speech is clear outside the concrete situation and the corresponding language context, (Socrates is a philosopher); “Volga flows into the Caspian Sea”; “All people are mortal”. Of course, speech is out of the situation and out of context does not happen, here we have in mind the possibility of understanding by the recipient (listener, reader) of speech out of a rigid connection with the situation and speech context.

The nature of the social specifics of speech determines its following forms: everyday speech (everyday, "everyday", colloquial), official, business, professional, oratory, stage, jargon, etc. Each of them has its own semantic, grammatical, lexical and even phonetic features.

The number of participants in communication determines the differentiation of speech into: public (it, in turn, can be directed at one person, at a small or large group of people) and speech alone with oneself (oral statements, reading and writing alone).

On the basis of "distance" (spatial organization of speech communication), speech is subdivided into direct, that is, direct speech communication (communicants have the opportunity to directly observe each other; the speech act appears in all its visual and acoustic characteristics), and mediated (communicants communicate without observing each other, and speech itself is limited in some characteristics - this is speech communication through print, radio, television, telephone communication).

Depending on the degree of development ("maximality") of speech, the following are distinguished: non-expanded (non-sentimental) speech; it includes the syntactic structures of a simple non-widespread sentence, for example: "Yes"; "No"; "I reached it"; "Beautiful flower", etc .; expanded (maximal) speech, the linguistic form of expression of which is a simple widespread or complex sentence (“He quickly ran to the house that stood on the edge of the village”); fully developed (super-sentimental) speech, the "range" of which ranges from two statements (phrases, sentences) to the text as a detailed coherent statement (from a short note in a newspaper to a large novel).

In terms of the loudness of the voice and its participation in speech, they differ: speech is loud, quiet, whispering, illusory (which is produced by the movements of the articulatory apparatus without a voice and which the perceiver can only see). According to the peculiarities of the prosodic characteristics of speech, its other forms can also be distinguished: speech is fast - slow; smooth - "torn", intelligible - blurred.

Other forms of speech are also distinguished in accordance with certain classification criteria, for example, speech formed and unformed (in ontogenesis); literary and dialectal; serving to express apologies, gratitude, sympathy and other forms of etiquette ("etiquette" speech), etc.

The "polyphonic" variety of forms and options for the implementation of speech communication and individual speech-thinking activity is determined by the multifaceted social needs of the use of speech activity in all forms of human life. Even a general overview of the various forms of oral speech1 convincingly shows that they fully meet the various needs of a person (socio-cultural, social-production, social, vital, etc.), which, in turn, determines the need for their appropriation (how ways of implementing speech activity) in the course of the educational process.

Consideration of the issue of the variety of forms of implementation of speech activity allows us to draw the following general methodological conclusion: for teachers of different profiles (kindergarten teachers, school teachers, speech therapists, etc.), within the “framework” of speech work, it is necessary to ensure the formation of all basic functions and forms of speech in their relationship with each other. friend.

It should be borne in mind that in ontogenesis, children do not immediately master all forms and means of speech activity. In the prevailing speech, normally speaking people usually master them to varying degrees. The data of speech therapy (aphasiology) indicate that in people with speech pathology, the basic forms and functional components of speech are also not equally impaired.