Text in speech activity

Every adult will say that the word “text” is clear to him: a text is some message, some information about something, presented by means of one of the national languages . There is some incompleteness in the above definition. Firstly, it is not quite clear whether the information transmitted by means of, say, a silent movie can be considered as text. Scientists believe - yes you can. And the artistic canvas or sculpture? You can too. But we, being engaged in psycholinguistics, cannot do without linguistic objects. In this section, we will deal with texts namely verbal, verbal. But here - this is the second - the incompleteness of the original definition lies in the fact that we do not know anything about the structure of the text, about its properties. Nothing is said, for example, about the size of the text: is the sentence a text or is it still “not a text”? And can the word be text? The answer is negative. But is he faithful? We see a sign in front of us: “There is no way out”. It seems to be a proposal, and even very pessimistic. But this sign hangs in front of the stairs in the subway. It turns out that the author did not indulge in any pessimism - he simply indicated that it was impossible to get out of the metro in this particular place, you must look for a place with a sign "Exit". It would seem - one word, and contains all the non-

information we need for this situation. This is a text, like many other texts: “Caution!”. “Do not enter!” (The text is understandable, if the verbal part seems to be merged with a nonverbal fragment of reality, - a lawn or flowerbed), “Grocery store”, “Flowers”, “Zoo” ... Indisputable texts (in a broader sense, but closer to the conventional than the picture) are the letters "T", "A", "M" (subway, for example).

The question “how do we understand the texts?” Also seems to be clear: we know the language - we understand the text. But there is a snag, if we take up the following text: “Both the direct and inverse deduction systems based on rules have limitations. The reverse system is capable of processing target expressions of any kind, but expressions for facts should consist of a conjunction of literals. ” Written in Russian, but not every Russian is understandable. Only the one who has knowledge from the field of logic and artificial intelligence - the text is taken from a special book.

Experts say, therefore, that to understand the text, we also need special knowledge. Knowledge is not necessarily a narrow specialty, as is the case with the text, but it is necessary knowledge about our world, about our life. It’s no secret that a child will not be able, if he is 3-4 or even 5-6 years old, to understand a simple phrase for us: “You don’t turn off the light bulbs again, and then you will be surprised that they take so much for the light!” There are books for children of younger, middle and older age - depending on the stock of knowledge acquired by children.

We also need logic (not necessarily formal or mathematical, but necessarily such, which is commonly called "common sense"). A proposal like “Hurrying to college, he forgot his ticket” will not necessarily be understood by everyone to the end. A young man with a certain mental retardation cannot understand him without explaining that you need to go to the institute by transport, especially if you are in a hurry, but there is little money. This young man had knowledge of transport and the function of a ticket, but it was difficult for him to tie them together.

In addition to the word text, a term with a similar meaning is now widely used in anthropocentric linguistics — discourse . Discourse is a text, turned over into life, a speech work in the variety of its cognitive (cognitive) and communicative functions. This text is inscribed: in real

cultural and communicative situation. Usually, when it comes to text, they mean the internal structure of the discourse; when the word discourse is used, the connection between the speech work and the linguistic consciousness, the speech context, and the non-linguistic aspects of the life of the word is emphasized.

Specialists in text linguistics (there is such a discipline) endowed the text with the properties of cohesion (cohesion) and integrity (integrity), as well as the property of compositional completion .

Connectedness (cohesion) of a text is a category that characterizes the characteristics of a connection within a speech work of linguistic elements: sentences, superphrasing unity, fragments, etc. It is built on the basis of the lexical and grammatical possibilities of the language that the young branch of linguistics studies — the grammar of the text.

The connections that arise in speech between sentences often depend on the movement within the text of new, relevant information, that is, on the actual segmentation of the phrases that make up the speech segment. Such a movement (recall that it carries the name of a thematic progression) we have already considered in the previous chapter.

Compositional completeness implies a certain logic of speech product unfolding. The concept of the psycholinguistic norm of textualism is connected with this category, i.e. optimal structure of the text, which corresponds to the sequence of occurrence of speech work in the linguistic consciousness . In accordance with the textual norm, the initial phrase (text inception) is usually made at the beginning of the speech work, containing the notation for the theme of the utterance that will unfold during the construction of the discourse.

The concept of integrity (integrity ) of the text goes beyond the outlook of traditional linguistics. This is a purely psycholinguistic category. Integrity implies the unity of the concept, the semantic program, from which, like a flower from a bud, it grows, a discourse develops. Only that speech segment is referred to as a holistic one, which is based on a certain semantic unity. Otherwise, you should talk about a coherent, but not a complete text. We can find an example of such speech education in J. Hasek’s novel The Adventures of the Good Soldier Schweik. Recall the situation when a reputable commission

Doctors are trying to establish whether Schweik is an idiot. Tired of the tedious questions of members of the commission, Schweik himself asks them a joking question:

“ However, gentlemen, I also want to ask you one riddle. There is a four-storey house, each floor has eight windows, on the roof there are two dormer windows and two pipes, each floor has two tenants. Now tell me, gentlemen, in what year did his grandmother die at the doorman? ”

The statement is constructed in accordance with the grammatical norms of the language. However, integrity is clearly missing. The text is meaningless, as the proverb says: "There is an elder in the garden, and an uncle in Kiev." The same principle is the basis of folk ditties, called "neskladvuhi":

Baba furrowed plowed

Gus broke his leg,

The bull is flying on the proplan,

I'm not ticklish.

The ratio of the types of tense forms of verbs in the text here creates the illusion of connectedness. In the substantive respect, the ditty is absurd: it describes situations “from different operas”.

But neskladuha later education:

A brick crawls along the wall.

Wooden, like glass.

Well, let him fly:

We do not need foam.

Just as there are texts connected, but not complete, there are complete, but incoherent speech works. Usually such constructions arise in colloquial speech, where much is clear from the general situation for the speaker and hearer. However, sometimes skipping a link can be used as a kind of narrative technique aimed at achieving, say, a comic effect. We give two such examples.

Conversation lovers:

- Honey, if I suddenly went broke, would you continue to love me?

“Of course, but I would miss you very much ...”

A reporter brought a traffic accident report to the editor. That to him:

- Too long. Cut down.

Half an hour later, the reporter brings the text:

-Mr Smith drove a hundred miles an hour on a slippery highway. Funeral tomorrow, at 15.00.

In the above texts, a violation of connectivity does not affect the grammatical laws of the sentence. However, in the speech of not very cultured native speakers, we can meet meaningful discourses that are not built in a completely Russian way. This type of speech is sometimes found in the statements of some military. Such discourses are called "armeizm". We give examples.

They say ensigns.

- Here you are not here. Here you take out the vodka to get drunk and disgrace the mess.

- Take firing positions! Why are you lying here? Your place is not here.

- Non-compliance with safety precautions entail the death of human victims .

Psycholinguistic study of the text implies insight into its intent, the core of meaning: This is done by highlighting the key words of the text that concisely convey the main content of the utterance and reduce the text to the nuclear formula in the form of the original sentence. The technique of such a study was developed by L. V. Saharny and presented in his works. Let us try, for example, to reduce to ten key words some significant text, for example, F. Dostoevsky’s novel Crime and Punishment. This is how the students of the Faculty of Philology coped with this task. We give the most typical answers,

1. Raskolnikov. Poverty. Theory. Murder .. Investigation. Psychology. Conscience. Punishment. Vera. Revival

2. Raskolnikov. Idea. Old woman. Ax. The crime. Porphyry. Sonya. Doubts. Flour. Vera.

And now another task: you need to reduce the content of the novel to one sentence (again, not exceeding ten words). This time the answers were like that.

1. Because of the idea, Raskolnikov kills an old woman, goes through agony and repentance to faith and purification.

2. The hero of the theory commits a crime, but, repenting, bears punishment and is reborn to a new life ..

It is characteristic that both the highlighted keywords and the phrasal formulations of the novel’s idea clearly show the theme-rhematic structure. In both cases, the initial information is first given - the name of the characters and the background to the events, then the information is new, relevant - a statement of the most important facts in the plot. This nuclear information is a kind of primary semantic record, the initial formula of the plan, which can be expanded into a coherent text. It is interesting that often the keywords are placed by the author in the title of the work. As a rule, these are words from the rheumatic part. F. M. Dostoevsky in the title of the novel issued a nuclear concept of the text - the crime and punishment.

The primary recording, of course, does not exhaust the entire semantic richness of the work. This is only the seed from which a powerful plant develops. This entry - the lowest level of the formation of the text. At the next level of development of the concept, the semantic program is divided, as it were, into meaningful formulas of the largest parts of the future work. Then each of these parts is divided into the plans of smaller fragments — and so on down to the smallest textual units with integrity — of super-phrasal unity, or thematic blocks.

Generation and understanding of texts are complex psychological processes. We will talk about them in one of the following chapters. We only note that sometimes in the course of communication, the speaker / writer message carries unplanned integrity , giving rise to a communicative failure. Phrases, when they are nearby, unexpectedly enter into semantic connections, creating a Comic effect (according to the principle “you cannot think up on purpose”). Here are examples of such casus announcements taken from L. V. Saharny’s book.

Dog for sale. Eats any meat. Loves little children.

Movie gallery: I want to know everything. (Is free).

Similar can be found in the writings of schoolchildren and applicants. Here are some pearls of this kind.

Uncle had a dog Zing. Uncle, when the guests came, put on a muzzle.

Grandfather woke up and found very few tomatoes in the garden. They went to sea in a boat.

Pavel Petrovich came to a duel in checkered trousers. They broke up. There was a shot.

Andrei Bolkonsky believed that he would achieve fame by sitting not in his office, but on the battlefield.

Chatsky talks about how one landowner exchanged his servants for three greyhounds, who saved his life and honor more than once.

Understanding of texts requires significant effort from the perceiver. Particularly serious work of consciousness suggests artistic works. We give two adjacent paragraphs from one artistic text.

“You have to be able to ask yourself questions and rethink what has been done.

Previously, beets were sown for a leaf, they were eaten like greens, and then they realized that beets are a root vegetable. ”

What is what? Unclear! Two more adjacent paragraphs.

“Now I will try to tell you what and how we read. Well, swan geese, help! ”

And here "geese-swans"? .. Finally, we find the author's explanation, a warning:

“I am writing out of order. This method is useful for verification. I check how the passages are written that are written with the same desire to tell the truth and take different details that change the point of view. ”

So writes Viktor Shklovsky, a famous writer and literary critic. Many of them liked to parody his manner based on a conscious violation of the norms of textualism. But the reader who has become accustomed to it will not regret it, and will always read the texts of V. Shklovsky with interest and particular attention, especially since it is impossible to perceive them “diagonally”. But if the manner of presentation (style) of a particular type of text can be liked by one and not by others, then in practice this means that reading without interest can lead (and usually leads), at best, to the loss of a part of the text information, at worst - to a distortion of understanding, even to a complete misunderstanding.

What then to talk about genres in general? They, as literary critics put it, are designed for “their readers”, for love

teli this genre. In the most interesting studies of the psycholinguist V.P. Belyanin it is shown that ... many characterological features of the authors and fans of science fiction works are the same. To clarify this fact, both had to undergo special tests, fill out detailed questionnaires (more than 400 questions in each) .. But the researcher’s work was fully rewarded: now we can judge with confidence about the existence of an objective logical link “author - text-reader”.

There is the science of “hermeneutics” known since ancient times, which teaches the art of interpreting texts and their interpretation. It is impossible to tell in detail about the achievements of this science as a whole, and we will focus only on a few. Already scholars of the early Middle Ages were engaged in the interpretation of biblical texts. That this is not an easy task, you can see for yourself by turning to the text of the Revelation of John the Divine:

“And the angel said to me: Why do you wonder? I will tell you the secret of this wife and the beast that carries her, which has seven heads and ten horns ... The seven heads are the seven mountains on which the wife sits. And seven kings, of which five are fallen, one is, and the other has not yet come, and when he comes, he will not be long. And the beast that was, and which is not, is the eighth, and from number seven, and will go to perdition. And the ten horns that you saw, the essence of the ten kings who have not yet received the kingdom, will take power with the beast, like kings, for one hour ... And he says to me: the waters that you saw, where the harlot sits, are people and nations , and tribes and languages. And the ten horns that you saw on the beast, these will hate the harlot, and will ruin it, and expose it, and eat its flesh, and burn it in fire ... And the wife you saw is the great city that reigns over the kings of the earth ”

This text, which has lived for 2,000 years, cannot be analyzed logically in the sense that the interpretation of the mountains, cities, horns, etc. indicated here as symbols is not (from the point of view of common sense or strict logic) unavoidable - such interpretation is only necessary to accept on faith, as believers do. Consequently, we must recognize a special property for a numerous number of texts - they are not verified (that is, they are not checked for truth by methods known to science). Not only religious texts are as follows. In their own way, they are unverifiable and poetic, for example, texts for which

ryh characteristic metaphors, a kind of "allegory." Two lines of V. Mayakovsky and stanza M. Tsvetaeva illustrate this well:

" From the words of such a coffin break / walk four of his oak legs . " Needless to say, “the coffin does not step”, that their “legs” are not intended for this, which is all the more “from the words” of the coffin (in fact, the coffins should be properly spoken and written, but the poet needed rhyme to alarm ") will not" break "anywhere. It is ridiculous, however, to approach the poetic text with the standards of everyday logic and speech. Otherwise we will not agree with such a stanza.

The seven hills are like seven bells,

On seven bells - the bell tower.

All sung: forty forty, -

The bell chisole!

Here, as the pedant-mathematician would say, “with calculation is absolutely bad,” not to mention anything else. But - God forbid, to approach the poetic stanza with the multiplication table! Here are special laws, its own system of figurative truth, which remains to be learned, which must be believed.

In “simpler cases”, it is also not so simple, although we may not notice it. Take, for example, the quatrain classics:

Caught the bird vocalist

And squeeze her hand.

The poor thing beeps instead of whistling,

А ей твердят: - Пой, птичка, пой!

О чем это? Да не о птичке, конечно, а о свободе поэтического творчества, о том, как ущемляют эту свободу. Это всякому понятно, но обратим внимание, что высказанная только что идея шуточного (на первый взгляд) стихотворения нигде в тексте не содержится: «черным по белому» не дана. Откуда же мы ее взяли? Говорят: «она содержится в подтексте». Допустим, но - где содержится подтекст? А ведь он формируется только в нашем мозгу, в нашем сознаний. Только наши знания жизни, в частности, знания о существовании конфликта между поэтическим творчеством и официальной властью, позволяет нам провести аналогию между «птичкой» и «поэтом», между «сжатой рукой» и «цензурой», между «писком» и вынужденным «выполнением социального заказа», между естественным «свистом» и свобод-

ной песней поэта. Получается, таким образом, что понимание текста - весьма сложный процесс, в котором принимает самое активное участие читатель . Именно он (если, конечно, хочет и может понять текст более сложный, чем «Не курить!») обязан соучаствовать в формировании всего, что задумал автор текста. Когда Н. И. Жинкин показал, что практически каждый текст содержит «смысловые скважины», заполнение которых - задача читателя (слушателя), он был совершенно прав.

Присутствие в дискурсах скрытого (неявно выраженного) смысла, смыслового подтекста - фундаментальная особенность речевого общения людей. О ней мы еще не раз будем вести речь в других разделах нашей книги.

Speaking about different types of voice messages, we cannot but dwell on the text combined with the image - the illustrated text. The ratio of the volume of the image and the amount of text here can be any; Children's books, as it is known, can consist mainly of pictures and small texts to them. And in the set of books illustrations can be "from zero" to a very small number.

Отметим, что понятие «книжного оформления» включает не только собственно общепонятные изображения (портреты персонажей, жанровые или батальные сцены, пейзажи, натюрморты и пр.), но и виньетки, орнаменты, специально созданные шрифты, цветные обложки и пр. Все эти средства визуального воздействия на читателя-зрителя имеют своей задачей каким-либо способом привлечь его внимание, выделить данную книгу среди других, способствовать созданию соответствующего (содержанию) настроя.

Не только художественная литература иллюстрируется; но и тексты специальные, научно-технические, медицинские, социально-экономические и др. снабжаются соответствующими схемами, диаграммами, чертежами, таблицами, фотографиями и рисунками, выполняющими важнейшие две функции - дополнительной информации и - это касается, главным образом, художественной иллюстрации, но не исключительно ее - эстетического воздействия. Это легко понять, если вспомнить, что в сфере книжной иллюстрации работали и работают известные художники-станковисты и графики, и что нормальная реклама какой-либо промышленной продукции должна показать ее дизайн.

Изучение иллюстрированного текста приводит к особой типологической классификации иллюстраций относительно данного

text. Во-первых, иллюстрация может играть доминирующую роль, отводя тексту второстепенную роль. Это относится не только к книжкам для малышей, не умеющих читать, но и к фотоальбомам, представляющим городские ансамбли, журналам мод, изданиям по изобразительному искусству. Здесь снова и снова приходится напоминать, что даже самый развитый национальный язык не располагает достаточно точными и экономными средствами описания всего существующего «на словах». Пословица «лучше один раз увидеть, чем десять раз услышать», может быть с успехом дополнена «...или прочитать»: в этой пословице сконцентрирован вековой опыт восприятия и понимания. Даже мастерское и подробнейшее описание, данное В. Гюго в его «Соборе Парижской богоматери», не может затмить впечатления непосредственного восприятия собора или даже его фотографии; можно экспериментально установить это, сравнив любое словесное описание одной из фигур («химер») на его фасадах с фотографией любой из них из архитектурного справочника. Следовательно, например, специалистам по рекламе необходимо уяснить себе суть изложенного тезиса и отводить изображению рекламируемого объекта соответствующее место, находить наиболее выгодный ракурс, подчеркивая с его помощью необходимые детали и новшества. Так и поступают, конечно, наиболее опытные специалисты уже давно.

Во-вторых, иллюстрация может и без сознательных намерений художника стать «ведущим фактором» в формировании образа, например, героев повествования или даже целой сюжетной цепи книги, К примеру, иллюстрации к Библии и к «Гаргантюа и Пантагрюэлю» (художник Ж. Доре), к сервантесовскому «Дон Кихоту» и пр. и пр. повлияли радикально на формирование образов и даже на создание подражательных копий - живописных и скульптурных - выполненных многими художниками во многих странах. Отмечено, что выход в свет современных изданий с новыми иллюстрациями на ту же тематику вызвал явный «эффект отторжения». Здесь дело уже не столько в количественном доминировании, но, главным образом, в том, что указанные образы были сформированы как первичные , ставшие привычными .

Thirdly, the illustration can be “passable”, “optional”, uninformative and not sufficiently individualized, finally, just “lethargic”, and therefore unsuccessful as a whole.

Thus, in our classification by the result of exposure, we find three groups. It can be added that similar results are achieved not only in the book Illustration, but also in stage art, in the art of film and TV. It is appropriate, speaking of the illustration in combination with the text, to touch on the typology of the form for presenting a combination of text with an image, which we have already done in part: a sound film (against which the great Charlie Chaplin unsuccessfully spoke in defending the rights of the Great Mute) dynamic “illustration”, designed to play a leading role in the kinoform, in “film text”. It is clear that the sound of speech differs significantly from the visually perceived text. The latter, of course, does not give us ideas about the timbre and intonation of the hero's speech (we “think the same” ourselves), about his appearance (in details and originality, which is not in the “words”), about his facial expressions and gestures. Practically the same, but with an even greater effect of “living perception”, we must recognize the art of theater. The advantage of such visual and acoustic effects over the capabilities of purely verbal means of radio text is quite clear. It is interesting to trace how the communicative abilities of a person were perfected throughout the history of culture: non-verbal and phonational signal-sign activities of primitive man plus his rock art - sound language plus his planar images - sound language plus writing plus drawings and painting, sculpture and theater (ancient times) - sound and written-printed text, visual arts, theater, sculpture and photography (black and white) - all the same, plus color (first painted) photo plus black and white cinema and radio - all the same, plus color cinema and color television - all the same, plus color stereoscopic image (or holograms). The latter has not gone beyond the laboratory experiments, but the mass introduction is already close. What is striking in this series? First of all - the improvement of visual technology with the stability of verbal media). Therefore, it is natural for a person to increase the volume of visual information, its resources and capabilities compared with other types and means of communication.

However, we must not forget that the “picture”, easily assimilated and loved by children (“cartoons”), saving thought

efforts, inhibits not just the process of learning to read, where it is necessary to “decode” the text, to develop your own imagination to understand it. The whole process of the development of the child is braked (without the habit of reading), directing it along the path of "least resistance." Instead of personal acquaintance with the standards of the culture of the old and recent past, instead of their mastering and imitation, they observe the imitation of “musculature” with its “show”, “entertaining” and consumer interests of low poshiba. Thus, the problematic of the illustrated text becomes ultimately a problem of general social danger: a scientifically based and therefore particularly effective river. Lama (the same "shows", clips of all kinds, etc.) are in the service of the regressive movement.

The graphic series accompanying the written text should be distinguished from the so-called non-verbal components of communication, which will be discussed in the next paragraph of the chapter,