Lecture
Plan:
1. Text. The distinction between the concepts of "text" and "sentence".
2. The structure of the text.
3. The concept of complex syntactic integer (SCC).
4. Compositional and structural features of the SCC.
5. Chain and parallel connection of proposals in the SCC and the text.
6. The term “paragraph” in two meanings. Paragraph and SCC ratio.
7. The reasons for the selection paragraphs.
8. The main functional-semantic types of SCC.
9. The main features of the text.
1. Attempts to study the text, except for individual comments A. A. Potebni, undertaken since the twenties of the XX century. But an independent object of linguistic analysis, considered outside the sentence, the text became in the second half of the XX century. Among the first appeared the work of I.A. Figurovsky, N.S. Pospelov.
In linguistics and psycholinguistics there is still no universally accepted definition of the notion of “text” (the term “discourse” is most often used in foreign works). The reason for this is that scientists, as a rule, single out those aspects of the text that, in their opinion, are fundamental, without pretending to be complete definitions.
A text is a group of sentences related by meaning and grammatically.
The question of the relationship between text and sentence is important. Most scholars believe that some texts may consist of one sentence (simple or complex). These cases are quite rare and exist only in such sentences where it is possible to detect signs of the text, and not the sentence. Despite the fact that there are a number of common features in the design of the sentence and the text, it is necessary to distinguish these concepts.
Currently, the text is called, as a rule, a product not only written but also spoken language. But some scientists (for example, I.R. Halperin) believe that the text can be presented only in writing.
2. The external structure of the text, as a rule, can be characterized in three parts: introduction, main part, conclusion. Its internal structure is often much more complicated, since is a composition deployment. In addition, when creating a text is taken into account and its stylistic identity. For example, it is obvious that the official text of the statement and the artistic text of the story are not identical in terms of internal organization. Thus, there are texts composed according to a predetermined scheme, and texts characterized by relative freedom of construction, depending on the individual manner of the author's presentation.
3 The structure of the text is characterized by the fact that it is divided into units larger than sentences.
A complex syntactic integer (SCC) is a group of sentences, united by a syntactic, grammatical, and intonational connection, characterized by a greater semantic completeness compared to a sentence.
As a rule, texts are divided into a number of SCCs, but it also happens that the boundaries of the text and SCC coincide (for example, short stories representing only one SCC).
Each SCC has its own microtheme, which plays the role of the main link beginning in the named segment of the text. Microthemes of complex syntactic integers are components of the main topic of the text.
Not all SCCs are single dark. Sometimes they are multi-dark.
4. SCC, as a rule, consists of three parts: the beginning, the middle part and the ending.
Zachin - this is the beginning of the SCC. Its purpose is the introduction of a new microtheme. All subsequent proposals of the SCC depend on it. Zachin may consist of one or two or three sentences. The characteristics of the first proposals of the SCC (that is, the beginning) were most fully formulated by L.M. Losev, listing the following signs:
1. They do not contain such words, the semantics of which would be determined from the previous part of the text (pronouns and pronominal adverbs correlating with the nouns, adjectives and numerals in the previous SST).
2. They are usually complete sentences of any structural type.
3. The first proposal of the SCC is less related to the last sentence of the preceding SCC.
4. In terms of meaning, the first sentence of the SCC is characterized by the fact that it begins the presentation of a new microtheme.
After the beginning there follows a middle part in which the development of the introduced microtheme is carried out. This part of the SCC is characterized by dependence on primitiveness, lack of independence (in contrast to the relative independence of the first sentences of the SCC), which is expressed in the presence of incomplete sentences, as well as pronouns and pronoun adverbs, which are substituent words. The middle part, as a rule, is represented by the largest number of proposals, since it concentrates the bulk of the SCC information.
Closes SCC ending . It is comprehended as a result of the previous content of the SCC, a conclusion, a generalization. The ending is a signal that the development of the microtheme is complete. The structure of the sentences of the ending most often differs from the one that was in the previous proposals of the SCC. In the end may be introductory words ( so, finally, in this way , etc.); In front of it, often used composing unions (most often the union and ); sometimes in the last sentences of the SCC the modal and temporal plan is changed.
Not all SCCs are divided into dedicated parts. An example would be descriptive SCCs, in which there is a listing of homogeneous phenomena, events, etc.
5. In terms of structure and meaning (following G.Ya. Solganik), it is customary to single out two types of communication proposals in the SCC:
a) chain;
b) parallel.
Chained the relationship is determined by the fact that each subsequent sentence develops the content of the previous one, repeating the meaning of a certain member of the sentence.
In this form of communication, the following sentences “use the designation of the subject given earlier for disseminating information about it, contain the effect, the reason, rely on the time or place indicated earlier, etc. These offers cannot be completely independent of the previous ones. Quite often, their dependence is so great that without the previous sentence their content is incomprehensible. The means of chain communication may be the following:
a) lexical repetition;
b) synonym, synonymous expression, paraphrases;
c) words- "substitutes":
- Indicative, personal and possessive pronouns;
- pronominal adverbs;
- allied words;
- verbal pass
and some others.
For example:
In one country, behind a glass mountain, behind a silk meadow, there was an untrodden, unprecedented dense forest. In that forest, in its very thicket, there lived an old bear. This bear had two sons.
When the cubs grew older, they decided to go looking for happiness in the world.
But the brothers did not find happiness in a foreign land, far from their mother and returned to their homeland. There they lived happily until the end of their days.
(Based on the Hungarian fairy tale "Two greedy bears")
Parallel the connection is determined by the fact that sentences do not “cling” one to another, but are equal among themselves; at the same time, either a transfer is made in them, or they are compared, or contrasted.
The main means of implementing parallel communication is syntactic parallelism (that is, the same or similar structure of sentences), most often manifested in:
- the same sequence of words;
- the unity of the temporal forms of verb-predicate.
For example:
The forest in the late autumn was good. The first snow fell. Somewhere on the birch leaves still remained yellow leaf. Firs and pines seemed greener than in summer. Dry autumn grass peeking out from under the snow with a yellow brush. Dead silence reigned around, like nature, tired of summer hard work, now rested.
(According to D.N. Mamin-Sibiryak)
In addition, it should be noted that, in addition to the listed characteristics of parallel and chain communication, each of them has an intonational design that is unique to it, which serves as an additional external means of differentiating them.
But there are cases when the connection of sentences is carried out at the expense of stable semantic relations between certain objects, phenomena, etc. (for example, cause and effect). In such cases, we are talking about a logical connection, to which S.A. Vasiliev, explaining that sentences like: “It began to rain. Pedestrians raised umbrellas over their heads, "- are connected in this way.
Thus, first of all, the types of communication are singled out in a structural and semantic sense (chain and parallel), which have certain means of realization in the text. Depending on these means, the following four types of communication differ: secondly: syntactic (using unions, syntactic parallelism, etc.), lexico-semantic (using lexical repetitions, synonyms, words- "deputies", etc.), intonational and logical.
6 The term "paragraph" is used in two meanings:
1. Indent right at the beginning of the line (red line).
2. The length of the written or printed text from one red line to another, usually containing the SCC or its part, less often - one simple or complex sentence.
On the question of the relationship of the SCC and the paragraph there are several points of view. Some scientists consider them to be identical concepts, others delimit them.
Paragraph and SCC can not be identified, because SCC is a syntactic unit, and the paragraph is a compositional and stylistic one.
A paragraph can be allocated one SCC, or part of it, or a separate sentence, or even several SCCs. Thus, the boundaries of the paragraph and the SCC does not have to be the same. In addition, the paragraph is inherent only in written language, and the concept of SCC applies equally to oral and written speech.
7. The reasons for highlighting a segment of text in a paragraph : firstly, the novelty of the information is the beginning of the SCC, secondly, its importance throughout the text and, thirdly, the impossibility of further presenting new information contained in this proposal due to logical their incompatibility with the previous sentence. L.M. Losev proposes to consider as a paragraph only the sentence that is indented to the right. This paragraph sentence should carry basic information. Then, to check the correctness of the selection of paragraphs you need to read only paragraph sentences. If at the same time interframe communication is not broken, then the paragraphs are selected correctly.
8 There are three main types of SCC: descriptive, narrative and type of reasoning.
In a descriptive SCC, a microtheme is revealed in the process of characterizing objects, phenomena of nature, persons, etc., which is recorded, as a rule, in the form of an enumeration of their signs. Distinctive features of this type are static and simultaneous listed phenomena. In terms of meaning, the following types of descriptive SCCs can be considered: landscape, description of the situation, description of the portrait and characteristics.
For example:
The day was mild and hazy .
The reddish sun hung low over the long, snow-like, layered clouds. The garden was covered with hoarfrost pink trees. Vague shadows on the snow were saturated with the same warm light.
It was unusually quiet.
(A.N. Tolstoy.)
The narrative SCC is characterized by the fact that its micro-theme is revealed in the process of developing actions, states, events, etc. This type of SCC is distinguished by its dynamism and sequence. There are many verbs in the narration, as well as words indicating a sequence of actions: once, first, then, then, after that, a little later, later, after a while, then, suddenly, unexpectedly, here, finally, and so on. .
For example:
In one swamp on a mound under a willow, wild ducklings were bred.
Shortly thereafter, the mother led them to the lake along a cow trail. I noticed them from afar, hid behind a tree, and the ducklings walked to my very feet.
I took three of them for my upbringing, the other sixteen went further along the cow track.
(According to MM Prishvin)
The narrative type of SCC is opposed to descriptive. The main difference is presented in the antonymity of their main characteristics: dynamics (in the first case) - statics (in the second).
The SCC of the type of reasoning is based logically on inference and is a development of a microtheme, consisting of three parts: a) thesis, b) proof (argumentation) and c) conclusion (conclusion, synthesis, etc.). But in the named type, the presence of all three parts is not always observed: in each specific case, some of them may be absent (or implicitly expressed) (this corresponds in logic to complete or incomplete, that is, abbreviated, inference). SCCs of the type of reasoning are characterized by a causal value, due to their structure. In the argument, words are often used that indicate the development of thought and causal relationships: why, because, because, first, second, third, third, therefore, why.
For example:
Our fatherland, our motherland is Mother Russia.
We call Russia the Fatherland because our fathers and grandfathers lived in it from time immemorial. We call it homeland because we were born in it, it is spoken in our native language, and everything in it is dear to us; as a mother, because she fed us with her bread, fed us with her waters, and learned her tongue; as a mother, she protects and protects us from all enemies.
There are many things in the world and, apart from Russia, all sorts of good states and lands, but man’s one mother’s — one’s homeland too.
(KD Ushinsky)
The above three types of SCC differ between themselves and the intonation characteristic of each of them. The most pronounced is the intonation of enumeration in descriptive SCCs.
9. The text has certain features, the main ones are as follows:
1. Informativeness. Any text must carry a certain
information i. have a sign of informativeness.
I.R. Halperin proposes to distinguish three types of information in the text:
a) content-factual (SFI);
b) conceptual content (SKI);
c) content-subtext (SPI).
Substantive factual information contains messages about facts, events, processes, occurring, occurring, which will occur in the world around us, real or imaginary. Substantive factual information is explicit in nature, i.e. always expressed verbally.
Substantive-conceptual information informs the reader of an individual-author's understanding of the relationship between phenomena described by means of SFI, an understanding of their causal relationships, their significance in the life of a people. This information can be interpreted differently, because it is usually implicit, i.e. verbally not approved.
Substantive information is hidden information. Subtext is always implicit. It is not present in all texts. Therefore, this type of information is optional (as opposed to the first two main types).
From the standpoint of methodological terminology, SFI is a topic, and the SKI is the main idea of the text. Thus, for the recipient, the most important task will be to identify precisely these two types of information.
2. Connectivity . Connectivity is a purely linguistic category, as it is expressed by the means studied by linguistics. All sentences in the text are in a certain order and are connected with each other by meaning and grammatically. This feature is provided not by one or several methods, but by a rather serious complex of various means. In each specific work uses a certain part of them.
The following types of connectivity can be distinguished:
1) local (detectable, for example, within a paragraph);
2) global (defined in the framework of the whole text);
3) contact (related text components are next to each other, in close proximity)
4) distant (related components are distant from each other, between them there are segments of text of a certain volume).
3. Semantic integrity (integrity) . We call text only that speech product that we perceive as a whole. The sign of semantic integrity, according to some scholars (A. A. Leontiev, Y. A. Sorokin, etc.), is a category of psycholinguistics, since here there is an orientation to the recipient: for the author, his own text, as a rule, is always complete. For the recipient, the semantic integrity of the text is provided:
- the unity of the topic (SFI);
- the unity of the main idea (SKI).
The ratio of the concepts of connectedness and semantic integrity of the text
If connectivity can be defined on two or more consecutive sentences, then integrity, as opposed to it, is defined on the whole text. Connectivity is usually a condition of integrity, but integrity cannot be determined through connectivity. On the other hand, a coherent text does not always have a characteristic of wholeness: this kind of facts are especially well known to psychiatrists, although they are also common in normal speech.
4. Completion . Текст можно считать завершенным тогда, когда с точки зрения автора его замысел получил исчерпывающее выражение. Для реципиента же признак будет очевиден, если он осознал замысел автора и сделал вывод о том, что получил всю необходимую информацию о предмете речи.
Завершенность (как и целостность) определяется на всем тексте, а не на его отдельных частях. Применительно к последним можно говорить лишь об их относительной законченности.
5. Членимость . Текст всегда делится на более мелкие составляющие: тома, части, главы, параграфы, ССЦ, предложения ... Кроме всего прочего, это продиктовано удобством восприятия информации: размер части обычно рассчитан на возможности читателя воспринимать объем информации "без потерь".
6 . Situationalism . By situationality is meant correlation with the real or fictional situation, on the basis of which the text is built. The reader understands the text only when he is aware of the situation in question. Therefore, some of the details necessary for an adequate perception of the text, but not described in it, are extracted precisely from a certain situation.
7 . Intentionality . The essence of this feature is that the text is always the result of the implementation of a certain communicative intention (intention) of its author.
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Psycholinguistics
Terms: Psycholinguistics