Part 2. The concept of the signs of the language and their main functions

In structural linguistics and psycholinguistics, the generally accepted concept is that language is considered as one of the sign systems. The units of the language (phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences, text) and the rules, the norms of their compatibility are considered in accordance with this concept in the aspect of their sign nature, that is, as signs of the language (95, 236, 243).

In order to master the surrounding reality, a person uses a large set of material, ideal and material ideal means, including various sign systems (“languages”), for example, sign systems of mathematics, geometry, chemistry, road signs, languages ​​of electronic machines and many others. Among them is the so-called everyday (idio-ethnic, "conventional") language, i.e., intended to be carried out not only and not so much "special" as "ordinary" mental activity (social-mental) activity and verbal communication.

The sign is defined in psychology (the theory of the sign) as a material, sensually perceived object (phenomenon, action), which acts as a “deputy”, a representative of another object, property or relationship (81, 93, 148).

In the psychological theory of the sign (128, 147, etc.), there are signs of natural (natural) origin (natural phenomena, seasonal changes in nature, climatic and "weather" phenomena in the geosphere, etc.) and signs of artificial origin. The latter are subdivided into signs created by animals (traces, marks, etc.) and “signs of human culture”. The second includes: signs of the language, “written signs” derived from them (punctuation marks,!? And others), as well as drawings, numbers, symbols, schemes and other “non-linguistic” signs that are not identical to signs of the language and are not a means of speech activity. Among the signs of human culture in psycholinguistics, it is customary to distinguish, in addition, "metalanguage" non-verbal signs that are used in the process of communication, in verbal communication, and therefore in speech activity, but "not identical" to the signs of language, since they are different in nature . These include: gestures, facial expressions, pantomimic ("body language"), semantic pause and voice intonation. In the interpretation of intonation as a sign used in speech activity of communication, there is no single, generally accepted approach in psycholinguistics. Some specialists (67, 218) relate intonation to the signs of the language, taking into account its “semantic function” (the function of refining or adjusting the semantic content of a speech utterance). Most researchers distinguish intonation as a separate, independent sign of speech activity or refer it to "metalinguistic" signs. The second point of view, in our opinion, is more reasonable, since the intonational design of speech does not quite fit into the system of language formed by the same type of elements. The intonation design of speech statements is, as it were, superimposed on the already “ready” structure of the speech utterance, “joining” to each semantic language element (word or word combination) that constitutes it. It is advisable to consider speech intonation, in this connection, as a general, “universal” sign of speech activity, without which full-fledged speech communication is impossible.

In oral speech, prosody (rhythmic-melodic and intonational-expressive design of speech utterances), and in writing, punctuation marks and many other graphic tools perform a dual role: on the one hand, they serve to unite or separate units and elements of the language, on the other - used to express certain values. The tempo, rhythm, amplitude and other characteristics of expressive movements in kinetic speech perform the same dual role.

The main functions of any sign are the functions of substitution and representation (“signal”), which form a common function of designation. In the signs of the language, these functions are presented as fully as possible, due to the fact that they not only designate objects, phenomena, but also perform the function of generalization; they include generalized information about the designated object. The main signs of the language - the word, sentence and text, in addition to the function of designation, also perform the function of a generalized and objective reflection of the objective content of the reality surrounding us. This is due to the fact that the word and its derivatives have more complex linguistic signs, a category of meaning.

The main and universal sign of the language is the word. In a word, like any other sign, its external form and internal content are distinguished. The inner content of a word as a sign of a language (its meaning and meaning) will be discussed below; as for the outer side of the word, it can be different. This is a certain combination of speech sounds (in oral audible speech), and a combination of sequential speech movements and corresponding motor images (in oral speech), and finally, it can be a combination of graphic signs - letters (in written language).

According to the psychological theory of the sign, the external form (“form of expression”) of the sign must fully correspond to its internal content. The external form of the word (in particular, the sound-syllable structure in phonemic or alphabetic expression) acts as the “material carrier” of its meaning; at the same time, it is closely connected with the “ideal carrier” of meaning - in a corresponding way-representation. Based on this, the following methodological statement can be made: the assimilation of a word as a sign of a language is possible only on the basis of the assimilation of all external forms of its expression, since possession of them ensures the possibility of adequate and effective operation of a sign in the course of an individual's speech activity. First of all, this provision refers to the assimilation of the graphic form of signs and the rules for their use in writing speech. Accounting for this provision is important from the point of view of "continuity" in the work of speech therapists of preschool and school institutions, due to the fact that the preparation of children with impaired speech for literacy, including mastering the graphic form of the word, begins already during their stay in preschool institutions (163, 230, etc.).

Signs of language (as well as some "metalanguage" signs, in particular intonation) are special, in many respects unique, signs of human culture. Their main distinctive properties are: unification, the maximum degree of generalization of the designated and universality.

The first of the indicated properties of language signs follows from the fact that the “basic” level of the language system (the system of phonemes and the corresponding graphemes) is formed from a fairly limited number of homogeneous elements with similar characteristics. Thus, the phonetic system of the Russian language includes a little more than 40 phonemes, and the corresponding system of graphemes - 33 characters. These elements of the same type were created (in the process of the socio-historical development of any language), taking into account their most convenient and accessible compatibility in “speech production”. Due to this quality of language signs - a high degree of unification (assimilation and compatibility) - a person as a “carrier of the language” has the opportunity, based on the combined use of a small number of “initial” language units, to create in speech and transmit any mental content, any ( in terms of volume and nature) meaningful information.

The maximum degree of generalization denoted as a distinctive feature of the signs of a language can be illustrated on the basis of a comparison of linguistic signs with other signs-symbols of a “high degree of generalization”. For example, traffic signs or signs regulating and directing the activities and behavior of people on the streets, in public transport, and various institutions at first glance have a higher degree of generalization than language signs. In fact, it is not. A high degree of generalization of these signs is “created” by signs of the language. Without an “explanation” of their meaning by signs of the language, non-linguistic signs are uninformative (their objective meaning is completely different). Of course, in the perception of the above non-linguistic signs-symbols, a person most often does not need to reproduce their “meaning-meaning” in a complete and expanded linguistic form, it is enough to have such an “explanation” in the baggage of his memory and accordingly organize his behavior. However, this does not in any way diminish the role of signs of language in the formation of the “meaning” of non-linguistic signs [98] and, more generally, in the provision and organization of symbolic human intellectual activity.

The universality of language signs is manifested in the following basic parameters:

• Interchangeability of language signs. (First of all, this refers to the "semantic" signs of the language.) Thus, a word can act as a sentence (take, for example, the syntactic rank of "one-word sentences"), not to mention the fact that it can "replace" the intermediate unit of the language - phrase; the sentence in some cases of speech communication performs the function of the whole text. And vice versa, in other situations of verbal communication, there is a need to replace the word with a whole sentence, and instead of the latter, to use the expanded statement - the text. In some cases, the word is actually “equal” to one morpheme (the so-called “monosyllabic words”), and in exceptional cases it can be replaced by one phoneme (one of the variants of “speech-exclamations”), although in speech communication this alternative not "typical".

• The subject of speech (one and the same thought, the same mental content) can be expressed using various means, that is, different signs of language, which, under unfavorable, “problematic” conditions for the implementation of speech communication, is essential. This property of linguistic signs plays a very important role in educational activities, for example, when explaining to students some scientific concepts that are quite complex in their content or applied to certain aspects of correctional and pedagogical work (for example, in cases where the level of formation of the hearing activity, as well as the cognitive development of students determine the need for the teacher to “adapt” the cognitive material under study, first of all “the linguistic form” of his presentation).

• With the help of the same signs of the language (the same set of signs), the most diverse mental content can be expressed in speech activity.

These “properties” of language signs provide the subject of speech activity (speaking or writing) with broad, almost unlimited possibilities of the “free” creative use of language signs in the formation and formulation of his thoughts.

As an illustration, one can cite a rather “expressive” example of using the simplest unit of a language — the phoneme in its sign function. Choose for this purpose the sound-phoneme "U".

- In the words “uh” (in comparison with the words “oh”, “oh”), “bitch”, “hand” (cf .: “river”, etc.) this sign appears in its main meaning-distinguishing function.

- In an isolated (out-of-word) pronouncement of this sound in combination with another common sign of the RD - intonation (i.e., in various “intonation patterns”), this sign is used quite often by the collective subject of speech activity, for example, when conducting various public-cultural mass and sporting events for expressing various emotional states of people: with its help a wide range of feelings can be conveyed - feelings of surprise, admiration, resentment, disappointment, etc.

- In the variant, when this sign is used as an official word - a preposition (i.e. as a function of another sign of a language), it can designate various intersubject connections and relations, for example, “the location of one object in close proximity to another” (The doghouse stood right next to the house; Sprawling willows , etc., grew along the river; attributive relations (the boy has a ball; this house has five windows) , etc.

- A curious example of the use of this sign as a “proper name” is found in the works of the famous and very popular Russian writer I.V. Mozheiko, known to children's readers as Kir Bulychev. In his fantastic series about the girl “from the future,” Alice, one of the main characters is the “space pirate” named “Merry U”. The main methodological conclusion, which follows from the theoretical material of this section, is as follows. Mastering a language system based on the formation of linguistic concepts and generalizations clearly implies that students master the basic linguistic units as “universal” signs, become familiar with their main sign functions and develop the corresponding skills of adequately operating them in their own speech activity. The ensuing task of correctional "speech" work, of course, is far from simple (in terms of its practical implementation). At the same time, correctional teachers (primarily speech practitioners) cannot ignore the main trends in the development of national speech therapy, one of which is the improvement of its methodology based on the use of the “arsenal” of scientific knowledge of psycholinguistics.