Lecture
No sphere of spiritual culture has had such a substantial and dynamic influence on society as science. Science has destroyed many of our notions inherited from the distant past and has substantially changed the state of our consciousness.
The concept of science has several definitions:
- Science – is a sphere of human activity whose function is the production and theoretical systematisation of objective knowledge about reality;
- Science – is one of the forms of social consciousness;
- Science – includes both the activity of obtaining new knowledge and its result - the sum of knowledge underlying the scientific picture of the world.
- Science – is the consciousness of life. From the surrounding life, scientific thought takes the material that it shapes into the form of scientific truth. Science is a manifestation of action within human society, the totality of human thought (V.I. Vernadsky).
- Science – is a special type of knowledge about an object which, ultimately, is given empirically. It is meant to develop certain means of explaining and predicting real events, which presupposes correlating any scientific concepts, however abstract and complex they may be, with empirical notions of the object (Shvyrev).
- Science – is the art of asking nature questions and getting answers, a process in which the Universe lives through and comes to know itself. Science is a way of cognising the world in which it becomes possible to pose questions to nature and obtain answers to them through the active transformation of natural objects (Stepin).
Today science cannot be given a precise definition. The distinctive feature of human scientific knowledge lies in deep penetration into the essence of phenomena, in their theoretical character.
The literal meaning of the word "science" is knowledge (A Concise Dictionary of Philosophy). However, not every piece of knowledge can be scientific. Scientific knowledge begins only when, behind a set of facts, a regularity is discerned - a universal and necessary connection between them, which makes it possible to explain why a given phenomenon proceeds in this way and not otherwise, and to predict its further development.
The great Russian naturalist and thinker V.I. Vernadsky noted that "its (science's) content is not limited to scientific theories, hypotheses, models, and the picture of the world they create; at its core it consists chiefly of scientific facts and their empirical generalisations, and the main living content within it is the scientific work of living people."
Science as a system of knowledge has a specific structure comprising a number of elements.
The main constituent element of science, its system-forming link, is scientific laws, which must correspond to the laws of the objective world and be their more or less accurate reflection. Therefore scientific thought does not develop through random leaps but is subject to definite laws of logic. It has been established that all sciences pass through a number of stages in their development:
- descriptive, associated with the collection of facts and their initial grouping;
- logico-analytical - a qualitative analysis of facts, followed by a combination of qualitative and quantitative (mathematical) methods of scientific cognition.
Therefore each science, together with its laws, includes, on the one hand, facts and empirical data, and, on the other, a certain systematisation of knowledge - theory.
Facts constitute the real basis of all the conclusions and inferences of scientists. Without systematisation and generalisation, without a logical understanding of facts, no science can exist. Facts become part of scientific knowledge only when they appear in a systematised, generalised form, serving as the foundation and confirmation of the laws of reality. Laws and facts in science receive a certain interpretation and serve as a basis for broader scientific conclusions provided that they are generalised in a theory.
An important structural element of any science is its specific categories - the most general concepts reflecting the particularities of its subject, content and method. They are an indispensable tool for research and the systematisation of material.
In science one also distinguishes such elements as principles, postulates, rules.
Principles are closely connected with laws. They are specially created in the process of systematising knowledge, but, unlike laws, they do not exist objectively in nature. Principles can also take the form of postulates, i.e. preliminary assumptions that serve as the basis for major theoretical generalisations.
Science can be understood either as a form of activity, or as a system or set of disciplinary knowledge, or as a social institution. In the first case, science appears as a special kind of activity aimed at the factually verified and logically ordered cognition of the objects and processes of surrounding reality. As an activity, science is situated within the field of goal-setting, decision-making, choice, the pursuit of one's own interests, and the acknowledgment of responsibility.
In the second interpretation, when science appears as a system of knowledge meeting the criteria of objectivity, adequacy and truthfulness, scientific knowledge seeks to secure for itself a zone of autonomy and to remain neutral with respect to ideological and political priorities. That for which armies of scientists spend their lives and lay down their heads is truth; it is above all else, it is the element that constitutes science and its fundamental value.
The third, institutional understanding of science emphasises its social nature and objectifies its existence as a form of social consciousness. Science as a social institution, or as a form of social consciousness connected with the production of scientific-theoretical knowledge, represents a definite system of interrelations between scientific organisations and members of the scientific community, a system of norms and values. However, the fact that science is an institution in which tens and even hundreds of thousands of people have found their profession is the result of a fairly recent development. Only in the twentieth century did the profession of scientist become comparable in importance to that of a lawyer or an economist.
At present science is understood, above all, as a sociocultural phenomenon. This means that it depends on the diverse forces, currents and influences operating in society, defines its priorities within a social context, tends toward compromise, and to a considerable extent itself determines social life. This fixes a twofold dependence: as a sociocultural phenomenon, science arose in response to humanity's definite need for the production and acquisition of true, adequate knowledge about the world, and it exists while exerting a quite noticeable influence on the development of all spheres of social life.
As a sociocultural phenomenon, science always relies on the cultural traditions that have developed in society, on accepted values and norms. Cognitive activity is woven into the fabric of culture. Scientific knowledge, penetrating deeply into everyday life and forming an essential basis for the shaping of people's consciousness and worldview, has become an inseparable component of the social environment in which the formation and development of the personality takes place.
Science, understood as a sociocultural phenomenon, cannot develop outside the assimilation of knowledge that has become public property and is preserved in social memory. The cultural essence of science entails its ethical and value-laden content and raises such problems as intellectual and social responsibility, moral and ethical choice, the personal aspects of decision-making, and the problems of the moral climate within the scientific community and collective.
Science acts as a factor in the social regulation of social processes. It influences the needs of society and becomes a necessary condition for rational management. Any innovation requires a well-reasoned scientific justification.
Science is developed by the community of scientists and possesses a definite social and professional organisation and a developed system of communications. A scientist is always a representative of one or another sociocultural environment. Science welcomes the search for truth, and consequently also criticism, polemics and debate. A scientist is in a situation of constantly having to confirm his or her professionalism through publications, presentations and qualification and disciplinary requirements, and often enters into complex relations both with fellow opponents and with public opinion. Recognition of a scientist's work is linked to a gradation of degrees and titles. The most prestigious award is the Nobel Prize.
Research activity is recognised as a necessary and stable sociocultural tradition, without which the normal existence and development of society is impossible. Science constitutes one of the priority areas of activity of any civilised state.
Contemporary science is called Big Science. At the end of the twentieth century, the number of scientists in the world exceeded 5 million people. Science comprises 15 thousand disciplines and several hundred thousand scientific journals. The twentieth century is called the century of modern science. New sources of energy and information technologies – are promising directions of contemporary science.
In responding to the ideological needs of society, science appears as an instrument of politics. Official science is always compelled to support the fundamental ideological principles of society, to provide intellectual arguments and practical tools that help the existing authorities and ideology retain their privileged position.
Many scientific studies are paid for by representatives of business circles and are conducted in certain directions with the aim of obtaining knowledge that yields financial benefit. Commercial funding of science is by no means necessarily harmful, since it cannot directly influence the results of research. But the very fact of funding promising programmes essentially determines and shapes the world of scientific inquiry. Research aimed at opening new horizons but promising no practical benefit will, perhaps, never be funded, and will therefore never be carried out.
Scientists engaged, for example, in developing food additives paid for by the companies that produce them, or in studying the environmental impact of various technologies, are participants in one programme or another. They are set specific tasks. They are engaged in searching for data that would be useful to their employers. Such scientific activity is determined by economic, social or political needs.
It is quite understandable that the government should fund basic research, because it is precisely such research that gives rise to new ideas, the implementation of which can contribute to the creation of highly profitable technologies. Thus, research work represents a sphere of long-term investment; neglecting these programmes can lead a country to scientific and technological backwardness, and hence to the loss of potential advantages in both the social and economic spheres.
In this sense, science always turns out to be socially conditioned. There are many phenomena worthy of study, but only those that promise a benefit to society are funded. Even if the results of a particular research programme are not directly conditioned by social needs, its choice and design may nonetheless well depend on these factors.
The difficulty in explaining science as a sociocultural phenomenon lies in the fact that science does not, after all, surrender its autonomy or dissolve entirely into the context of social relations. Scientists try to shield themselves from accusations that research is conducted solely in accordance with the needs of those who fund science. The scientific method presupposes objectivity (though it is extremely difficult to judge it). In any case, genuine science adheres to a methodology based on the arguments of reason and experience, rather than being guided by political or economic considerations. Real science always tries to give an objective, impartial interpretation of data. Official science is always compelled to support the fundamental ideological principles of society, to provide intellectual arguments and practical tools that help the existing authorities and ideology retain their privileged position.
The question of the social functions of science is singled out as a special and priority problem; among these, three main ones are most often distinguished:
1) the cultural-worldview function;
2) the function of a direct productive force;
3) the function of a social force.
Science — is a special sphere of culture directed toward obtaining objective, systematised and evidence-based knowledge about the world. It differs from other forms of culture primarily in its methods, goals and criteria of truth.
| Sphere of Culture | Main Goal | Principal Way of Knowing | Criterion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Science | Obtaining objective knowledge | Observation, experiment, proof, theory | Provability, verifiability |
| Philosophy | Understanding the world, humankind and its place in it | Reasoning, logical analysis | Soundness, logical coherence |
| Religion | Understanding the world through faith and spiritual values | Faith, revelation, religious experience | Faith, conformity to religious teaching |
| Art | Reflecting and interpreting reality through images | Artistic creation | Aesthetic expressiveness, emotional impact |
Science studies specific aspects of reality and seeks to obtain verifiable knowledge. Philosophy considers the most general questions: what truth, consciousness, freedom, goodness and humanity are, and what the principles of the structure of the world are.
At the same time, science and philosophy are closely connected: philosophy helps to make sense of scientific methods and results, while the achievements of science influence the development of philosophical ideas.
The main difference: science relies above all on empirical verification and proof, while philosophy — relies on rational reflection and argumentation.
Science explains the phenomena of the world by means of natural causes that can be investigated and verified. Religion is based on faith in God or the supernatural and addresses not only questions of the world's structure but also questions of the meaning of life, morality and spirituality.
For example, science can investigate the origin and development of life by means of biological theories, whereas religion may consider the question of the meaning and purpose of human life.
The main difference: scientific knowledge requires verification and proof, while religious beliefs are based primarily on faith and spiritual experience.
Science strives for an objective description and explanation of the regularities of reality. Art reflects reality in artistic images and allows the conveying of emotions, experiences and the author's vision of the world.
For example, a scientist may study the structure of the human organism, while an artist — depicts a person, conveying their character and emotional state.
The main difference: science strives above all for truth and objectivity, while art — strives for a figurative interpretation of reality and aesthetic impact.
Conclusion: science is an independent form of culture, since it has its own goals, methods and criteria for evaluating knowledge. At the same time, it is not isolated from philosophy, religion and art: all these spheres, each in their own way, help a person to know and make sense of the surrounding world and themselves.
Comments