14 3 Visual Arts

The aesthetics of fine art lies in the ability to visualize perfection. It is in visualization that the human sense of beauty arose. The basis of human visual perception of beauty is his ability to correlate what is directly perceived with the already established idea of ​​perfection. The aesthetic experience of an image is filled with diversity like no other.

The concept of fine arts form visual - intended for visual perception - its types. These are the earliest types of artistry. In them, the formation of imagery is closely related to the need to master and space, saturated with various types and forms of life. Types of art that reflect the existence of the world's objective forms in their richness and diversity are called fine arts. These include: living description, sculpture, graphics. They have an objective form and do not change in space and time. According to D. Diderot, fine arts create a portrait image of objects of the visible world. External similarity of images is one of the necessary conditions for the existence of this type of imagery, although it is not exhausted by it. That is why fine arts have great cognitive potential. They are based on the study of real-world phenomena, and require knowledge of proportions, measures, color relationships, and technical skills to create an artistic image. Let us recall that it was on this basis that painting was considered a form of scientific knowledge in the Renaissance.

Fine art, creating portrait images that individualize reality, concretizes objects in terms of their shapes, proportions, volumes, colors, etc. After all, as we already know, in an artistic picture, an object is not copied, but taken in accordance with the idea of ​​​​its vitality and unfolds according to its qualities, testifying to the extent of such compliance. Therefore, the visual arts allow us to reveal the inexhaustible wealth of forms in the real world and each time the unique, individual certainty of each of the manifestations of life. This also applies to the portraiture of images. Of course, used to depict a unique person, this concept can be legitimately extended to any images of the real world. Each time they reflect the uniqueness of this vitality in unity with the idea of ​​​​the expedient vitality of the species.

The artistic image of the fine arts unfolds in the spatial dimension. Painting and graphics are two-dimensional; sculpture is often three-dimensional. The main material of painting is color; graphics - in pencil (charcoal, sanguine, ink, etc.). Natural materials are used to create a sculptural image: stone (granite, marble), metal (bronze). Painting and graphics are characterized by the creation of a conventional space: on the plane of canvas, parchment, paper. The sculptural image fits with its forms into real space (natural or indoor space).

The material of the fine arts is not neutral with respect to the artistic image, but is its immediate reality. Fine art, with its static figurative speech, reflects the uniqueness of aesthetic relationships with space: the rootedness of the image in space, its design by itself - the provision of aesthetic certainty. This does not contradict the fact that each of the arts has an arsenal of means for reflecting the internal dynamics of the plot and the internal state of the images.

the visual is a way of materializing (reinforcing) the acquired cultural experience of seeing forms, proportions, color relationships to display the internal dynamics of world phenomena: events, relationships, experiences Indeed, a marble block, thanks to the genius of a sculptor, is capable of turning into Rodin's Thinker or Michelangelo's Brutus. The famous saying of Michelangelo on the process of perfect sculptural images from marble blocks: I take and cut off everything unnecessary. There is in the hat of marble. The sculptor already sees his work, and sees it in the smallest details, because one imprecise movement of the cutter in his hands - and the sculpture will be spoiled.

The beginning of the visual associated with graphic (and later pictorial) images of the Paleolithic era. Graphics (from the Latin grapho - I write, I draw) - forms images by defining the contour of the image and applying lines, strokes to the surface. Graphic works are often monochrome (one-color). Therefore, in graphics, the main burden in creating an image is borne by the drawing. Images of animals (the subject of the greatest indifference) are applied to the walls of caves (the dwellings of people at that time). The animal, its image, is introduced into the framework of human habitation - it is a symbol of the captured space. This is the beginning of an aesthetic attitude to space and its objects, and not the actual artistic formation of time, the process is important for the creation of associativity of ideas, because the animal seemed to have collected in itself the entire reality of space, giving it its own image. Depicted within the limits of human habitation, it is

personifies the formation of indifference to the space in which objects are more glorious not simply from the point of view of their practical value (object of consumption), but taking into account the need to know their vitality recommend: body structure, habits, etc. and to establish communication (the real form of the latter becomes domestication). This is convinced by the nature of the images of animals or peacefully grazing or pecked, or enraged. Here the attitude to the object does not yet arise a free need to fix its vitality in the image as self-valuable. Images of animals at the beginning of the formation of figurative thinking reflect a number of accompanying needs, directly average not related to the aesthetic experience of the appropriateness of forms. Images are intended to perform certain ritual actions that are designed to help create skills for successful hunting. It is important to emphasize this point, since all the others (ritual beating of an animal, the implementation of other ritual actions) - accompanying the main, there are ideas of aesthetic development of physical space due to the translation of forms of yoga in vitality into their own, comfortable for a person space and a way of communicating with an animal - a concentrated image of spaces. Before the invention of printing, writing letters was a type of graphics. On the basis of (with a technique of creation), literature also refers to the fine arts.

The development of graphic art, the diversity of its techniques begins in Europe with the Renaissance. With the spread of printing (XIV century), illustrative graphics serve to enhance the figurative content of literary works. Along with various types of drawings, the technique of engraving is included in graphics. It is based on the application of a carved image on wood or metal and its imprint on paper. This technique was invented in the 6th-7th centuries in China and spread in Europe from the 14th century. Its advantage is the possibility of printing in bathrooms (prints), due to which graphic works have an advantage over painting, each artistic image is unique, unrepeatable (even the author's repetitions of it are only a copy), and over most types of sculpture. Wood engraving is developing in two directions: as a book illustration and easel works - prints. It was the technique of engraving that contributed to the invention of printing. Outstanding masters of graphics, who worked at different historical times, joined the establishment of graphics as an independent art form (Antokolsky, Goya, Daumier, Durer, Canova, Mendes, Moore, Picasso, Rem Brandt, Thorvaldsen, Favorsky, Shubin, Shevchenko). Painting is a living art, that is, a definite, artistically convincing embodiment of objects of indifference in the material. The prerequisite for the allocation of painting as a special kind of art was a change in the view of European society on the values ​​of human life. The Renaissance reveals the wealth of manifestations of the real world, investing it in the boundless wealth of forms with the help of color. The world acquires colors and shines with its whirlpool of different vitality. In numerous treatises of the XIV-XVI centuries, the laws of formation of an artistic image by means of painting are studied (L-B Alberti On painting B Cellini Treatise on painting ”, Leonardo da Vinci Book on painting A Durer Four books on proportions, etc.).

Painting is based on drawing: it forms an image, outlining its contours in the space of a canvas or wall Leonardo da Vinci once put forward such a poetic hypothesis of the origin of painting: The first yu alunok contained one single line, outlining the shadow of a person, rejected by the sun on the wall. This poetic hypothesis is interesting because it focuses on the role of drawing and light in painting. Indeed, drawing, combining line and light and shadow together with color form a pictorial image. Using color, drawing, composition, texture (expressiveness of colored strokes), perspective, alternation of light and shadow, the artist creates the illusion of volumetric space on the plane of a wall or canvas. Thanks to the developed technical skills, he creates the illusion of a volumetric-spatial arrangement of objects on a plane. Painting reveals the boundless wealth of states of the natural world and human feelings, securing their existence as an intrinsic value. An important organizing component of a work of art is composition (from Latin compositio - assembly, creation). It gives the work integrity, subordinating its elements to each other and to everything, and also determines the features of the arrangement of figures within the work as a whole. The material of painting is paint (oil, tempera, watercolor) Painting does not require a third dimension, but deliberately ignores it in order to replace purely spatial reality with a higher and richer principle of color. Forms, distance, limitations, convexity, i.e. all spatial relationships are created by means of color. It reflects a world that has received certainty: volume of forms, depth of spatial relationships ь thanks to perspective, color, light and shade

, tones Color, present in a single whole - an artistic canvas - is subordinated to integrity and itself creates the laws of the whole - coloring Focusing on the role of color in painting, G. Hegel writes: Only painting by the use of color proves the fullness of spirituality before its actual living embodiment

Colors in painting are based on the principle of interaction and mutual influence. Objects present in the composition, reflecting each other's color; the strength of light affects the shapes of objects, increasing or decreasing them for vision. Color, thus, performs a figurative-formative function, acting in the space of a specific work according to the principle of organizing it into a single cell.

Color as the main material of painting requires the artist to know the laws of interaction and properties of colors. Currently, there are special branches of natural scientific knowledge about the properties of colors, which was formed in the history of science, including thanks to the discoveries of artists. Color science as a science about color is a systematized set of data of physics, physiology and psychology concerning color. It covers the physical theory of color, the theory of color vision and classification and measurements.

In general, depending on the color tone, color frequency and reflection coefficient, each of the colors has several thousand shades. It is clear that only an experienced eye of an artist is able to distinguish the greatness of the number of nuances of colors. The achievements of modern science about the relationship of color and light are based on the empirical knowledge that artists received in the process of artistic creativity. It is significant that the brilliant scientist and artist of the Renaissance Leonardo da Vinci more than four centuries ago discovered and formulated a number of laws of the relationship of color and light, which became the property of modern science.

The method of combining colors in painting is determined not only by the physical laws of their interaction, but also by the idea of ​​the work, the content of the images and their symbolic filling. Thus, comparing iconographic images and the works of secular painting of the New Time, P. Florensky writes: Icon painting depicts things as created by light (italics added - V. M.), and not illuminated by a light source. Icon painting sees in light not the external, somewhat mountainous, appearance of things, but also a quality not inherent in material originality; for icon painting, light presupposes and creates things, it is their objective cause, their transcendental creative beginning, which manifests itself thanks to them, but is not exhausted by them [25, pp. 180-182]. In secular painting, the symbolic load of colors has a different meaning: they call to convey the idea of ​​​​the internal vitality of the objective forms of the world. Comparing icons of descriptive images and works of secular painting, P. Florensky notes, in particular, the works of the genius Rembrandt: In Rembrandt there is no light, no objective reason for things, and things are not created by light, this does not mean that the works of the Dutch artist are devoid of light. On the contrary, they are full of light, but in a different way: this is not the rationalistic illumination of the Italians (except Leonardo, for whom light has a magical content) in Rembrandt things glow by themselves. His image is not an object like (grapes, peaches, apples), it is the idea of ​​grapes, the idea of ​​apples, etc. And all this, quite in Rembrandt's way, glows from itself. This is not a theistic, but a pantheistic understanding of the world; self-deification of the world is combined with his denial of asceticism.

To explain the metaphysics of painting, let us turn to another comparison. Iconographic images of saints and secular portrait images reflect the idea of ​​life, but make different accents regarding its value. There is Trubetskoy notes the aesthetics and metaphysics of iconographic images as follows: An icon is not a portrait, but a prototype of the future temple humanity. And since we do not yet see such humanity in today's game people, but only guess, - an icon can serve only as a symbolic image of it. The emaciated faces of saints on icons contrast the bloody kingdom of self-satisfied and well-fed flesh not only with subtlety of feeling, but above all - a new norm of life relationships. The idea of ​​beauty appears in icon writing as the absolutization of the spiritual in opposition to its corporeal. In the aesthetics of the icon, researchers remember the constancy of the idea, which acquires a corresponding deployment in canonical images. The image of the Christian God reflects the tension of the inner life, which is open to the suffering of the body and spirit. Accordingly, the aforementioned spiritual states are reproduced in iconographic canonical images, despite the fact that facial features can change, the face retains spirituality, i.e. the essential certainty of the image. The face is interpreted as a synonym for the words phenomenon, which is revealed to the day (everyday) perception. The face in Greek means idea, i.e. the spiritual essence is revealed, the contemplation of the eternal meaning of heavenly beauty, its heavenly prototype.

An artist oriented toward understanding and reflecting the values ​​of real life F. Zuccari (introduced the Italian ma

(nyerism) notes the wealth of manifestations of beauty in the real world, which should appear in a work of art as a unity of spiritual form. It was formed in the intellect as the idea of ​​a thing and is related to the real forms of the objective world. With such a unity, the world opens up with an inexhaustible wealth of beauty of forms full of spiritual content. In pictorial images of real life forms, there is no opposition between the spiritual and the material, and spirituality shines through in all beings, appears in life completely forms, mental states, struggles of sensory and logical principles.

In the history of artistic development, painting was defined as an art that materializes the real world in an image. As M. Berdyaev aptly noted, painting is connected with the power of the embodied physical world and the stable istyu of the formed matter is, a painting is the embodiment of the emotional experiences of the artist, touched and inspired by the beauty of subject forms, their expressive vitality, phenomena, the wealth of artistic means and manifestations. Painting takes the trinity of space dimensions into a plane in order to embody the inner emotional experiences of a person by means of color.

With the development of experience of relations with the world, the inner experience of the world of human existence, the wealth of species and genre specificity of painting expands. According to species specificity, it is divided into easel and, monumental-decorative, decorative, icon writing, miniature, diorama, panorama. Each type has a wealth and originality of techniques for creating an image. The following techniques are known: oil painting, fresco, tempera, lacquer painting, wax painting, enamel, mosaic, stained glass, as well as watercolor, gouache, pastel combined with graphics.

Each of the named types of painting has its own purpose. Thus, monumental painting exists in the form of frescoes, mosaics, panels and serves to decorate architectural structures. It is inseparable from the aesthetic image of the interior; decorative painting performs the function of decorating theatrical performances (sketches of theater and film scenery, costumes, etc.); icon painting is a type of painting that is religious in theme and plot and cult in purpose; easel painting exists as a separate picture and does not depend on location. It has many genres and subspecies; the history of their formation testifies to the growth of interests in the world and the improvement of the skill of the image. The objects of the image are man, nature, historical events, everyday scenes, objects that surround a person; the genres of easel painting reflect the features of the objective world and are distinguished by the originality of the technique of creating an image; these are animalistic, portrait, landscape, historical, everyday genres, still life; still life.

In the Renaissance, portrait art is becoming increasingly widespread due to the fact that an active, creative personality is treated as the highest principle and center of earthly existence. It is not about an ideal model of desirable human qualities, but portraits of real historical figures and famous contemporaries. It was during this period that the secular portrait was formed. Its heyday, characteristic of the 15th-19th centuries, was due to an increased interest in the inner world of a person, acquiring its uniqueness, depth and significance. The portrait reveals and affirms the intrinsic value of the human personality (Velazquez, Goya, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Rembrandt, Repin, Rue Bence, Titian). Consequently, the self-portrait genre is spreading (Vrubel, Durer, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Rembrandt, Rubens, Titian, Shevchenko) as an opportunity to achieve an adequate reflection of the inner. Landscape painting stands out as a genre in European art. New time, although its elements were used in images from ancient times, purified from its immediate vitality and formed into a special ideal space, the world of natural life acquires an ideal spiritual dimension, is defined as an object of admiration, admiration, empathy. The heyday of landscape painting, characteristic of the era of romanticism and realism, testifies to humanity's awareness of the intrinsic value of nature in the richness of its vital manifestations, in their expressiveness, the perfection of natural forms. Romanticism actively resorts to picturesque and poetic images of nature, seeing in its expressive manifestations a source of inspiration for feeding the human spirit. Nature is the personification of true freedom for artists.

Historical painting as such was formed in European art: in the 18th-19th centuries - the period when scientific views regarding the history of mankind were formed. In it, man appears as a subject of the historical process, revealing his human qualities, and history is a complex process of the movement of humanity in the service of becoming due to contradictions, struggle, the tragedy of wars and conflicts. Subtypes of historical painting are distinguished: historical-everyday, portrait-historical, historical-mythological, battle.

Graphic drawing is a necessary component of another type of fine and

arts - sculptures. However, unlike painting, in sculpture the drawing is necessarily translated into a fundamentally different - solid material. Sculpture (Latin sculpo - I cut out, I carve, cuts out) is a type of art based on the principle of volumetric, three-dimensional spatial image. Sculpture is also called plastic art (from the Greek plastik - modeling). Several types of materials are used to create a sculptural image: soft (clay, wax, plasticine), hard (stone, wood), passing from a liquid state to a solid (metal, plaster, concrete). The specificity of the material requires special skill and precision of execution, because even minor errors in the processing of marble, granite, wood can lose the material. In a sculptural image, the integrity of forms, texture, organization of volume, proportionality of parts, character of the silhouette of parts, character of the silhouette are extremely important. The aesthetic expressiveness of the material plays a decisive role in the creation of a sculptural image. It not only creates the physical reality of the image (three-dimensionality, volume, materiality), its artistic diversity. The best material for displaying the tenderness and beauty of a person is marble; granite vividly conveys the power, grandeur and stability of the image, while plaster symbolizes statics, immobility, massiveness of the whole. There are two types of sculpture: round (statue, sculptural group, bust, torso) and relief (image on a plane, serves as a background). Volumetric sculpture, located in real space, harmoniously interrelates with it.

According to the content and method of creating an image, sculpture is divided into monumental (includes monumental-decorative), easel and small-scale sculpture. Monumental sculpture has a special significance for the aesthetic organization of the simple weapon. It is oriented towards open space and is designed to organize it. It decorates the facades of temples, public buildings, as well as streets, squares, parks, squares, etc. Monumental sculpture actively participates in the synthesis of arts (complements and deepens the architectural image). Easel sculpture is designed for closed spaces (museums, exhibition halls), has smaller dimensions. Its main subject is a person: the beauty and perfection of the body structure, plasticity of movements, gracefulness of appearance. It is distinguished by a deeper psychologism of images. The origins of sculpture are associated with the need to embody images of gods in solid material and place them in the space of human life, in order to thus obtain a guarantee of protection from evil forces and assistance in law. Since the Renaissance, the main object of sculptural images is man. G. Hegel notes the aesthetic qualities of sculptural images: In sculpture, the spirit must appear before us motionless and blissful in its bodily form and in direct unity with it, and the form must be animated by content that has the character of spiritual individuality. The spirituality of the image in sculpture permeates the natural material, unites it into a harmonious, complete whole. The spirit embodied in the sculptural image is a spirit that is monolithic in itself. Therefore, it does not dissolve in space, but on the contrary, organizes the space itself, creates its fullness and certainty. Literature as a type of fine art On the basis of graphic imagery (drawing), not only painting and sculpture are formed. From graphics, the written literature In the 18th century, a more specific interpretation of the concept of literature appeared in Europe, namely, fiction. Its purpose is to distinguish literary creativity as a special type of art, based on artistically figurative speech, from the language of scientific works, philosophical treatises, everyday speech, etc.

The formation of literature as an art form is actually associated with the creation of an artistic language - the artistry of language. The poetic form, within which literature developed over a long period of time, includes the basis of internal self-organization - a rhythm-metric system. In this it is akin to music. Prose literature does not have this proven method of constructing speech. So, the nature of its internal self-organization changes. It is concentrated around an opinion, organized by it to create a voluminous figurative content. In fiction, the word acquires a special, no longer verbal, but figurative content. In a work of art, there are not names of objects in a word, but rather the transformation of words into named objects. Therefore, the reader does not notice and does not remember words; images arise and develop in his mind.

The history of the formation and development of literature as an art confirms its close connection with the tribal life, for which it served as a source of self-awareness. Its most ancient types, formed during the year of the organization of the odes - myths and magical ritual poetry. Since ancient times, literature has functioned as a spoken word, must be heard by others. Having emerged from the myth, literature has carried out the function of creating

aesthetic but definite way of human life. It overcomes the absence of the temporal course of events, statics in the depiction of life, the absence of individualization of characters, characteristic of myth. It united space, time and action, unfolds life in its characteristic fullness of manifestation. On the basis of syncretism of early forms of artistry subsequently developed different types of literature: epic, lyric, drama. After all, the word expresses and depicts, and orgases the action. The whole point lies in the way of organizing words. Rhythm characteristic of poetry. It serves to express feelings that have received an aesthetically determined rhythmic-metric organization. Therefore, poetry is an expressive art. Feelings, laid down in this, and not another verbal image, acquires extremely heightened expressiveness and at the same time inexhaustible depth, since the poetic word is multi-level for the content of Mr. Libin and predetermines a number of associative series of thoughts and experiences. Beginning with the Renaissance, artistic prose appeared alongside the poetic form. However, it was only in the 19th century that it was established as a legitimate form of art. The concept of literature replaced the concept of poetry thanks to the spread of printing. Prose form is a system of means for creating an ideal image of being, unfolding in an ideal space - the limit of the work as a spiritual integrity. It includes a certain logic of events, relationships, a clash of destinies, unfolding into an internally convincing vitality. The character of the imagery of prose artistic speech is related to other types of visual, because with the help of the word the essence of events, characters is outlined so M. Bakhtin defines the complex structure of a prose work of art as such, which is the unity of the consciousness of the author and the consciousness of the hero. As for the first, I write to the philosopher, the author's consciousness is the consciousness of consciousness, that is, it occupies the consciousness of the hero and the world of his consciousness, embraces and completes this consciousness of the hero with moments that are fundamentally transcendental to him himself, which, if they were immanent, would make this consciousness false. Consequently, philosophy explains the aesthetic foundations of the integrity of the work as a complex, rich-plot artistic whole saturated with events and relationships. The author not only sees and knows everything that each hero sees and knows individually and all the heroes together, but also whiter than them, and sees and knows something that is fundamentally inaccessible to them, and in this always-defined and stable excess of vision and knowledge the author has for each hero and all the moments of completeness of the whole are found - both the heroes and their common events. life, i.e. the whole work. Drama as a type of literature is a kind of synthesis of the visual and expressive possibilities of verbal art. In drama, the word is assigned the organizing function: the creation of action by means of words and Drama is the literary basis of theater and cinema. Thus, literature as the art of words is all-pervasive. Literary genres (epic, lyric, drama) in their formation and history of development unfold the process of creating and preserving in the word the wealth of experience of man's attitude to the world in its aesthetic certainty. Fiction combines various types of visual and expression, creating the fullness of being in images by means of action. It is equally important that the material of literature - the word accumulates in itself the entire spiritual experience of mankind, synthesizing it in the artistic expressiveness of verbal images.

Thus, the fine arts are a system of types, the artistic language inherent to them creates an ideal image of the world's existence in its integrity, vitality and expressiveness as something valuable in itself. They reflect the world in the language of color in painting, drawing - in graphics, hard material - in sculpture, in a word - in literature.