8 4 The aesthetics of positivism

Aesthetics of positivism is one of the directions of XIX century aesthetics, which is defined as non-classical aesthetics. Its characteristic features are a departure from the positions of historicism and rationality inherent in classical aesthetics. Poses itivizm reflect the growing influence of scientific knowledge, which are designed to determine scientific search methods also in the humanitarian fields, including number in aesthetics The founder of positivism, the French philosopher Ogyu in Comte (1798-1857) in the 80s-40s of the 19th century created a system of positive philosophy (from the 20s of the 20th century its new historical form took shape eopositivism) The basis of the philosophy of Comte is agnosticism - locking the possibility of knowing the essence of things, he considers artistic creativity and aesthetic perception in their social conditionality Art, according to the philosopher, is designed to help science in promoting natural science and positive knowledge (ideas of philosophical positivism ) Art should be a means of idealizing being through creating ideals and laying them into forms of beauty; there are artistic works. The philosophy of positivism greatly influenced artistic practice, leading to the formation of naturalism as a special direction of French art (Guy de Maupassant, E Zolyastetva (Guy de Maupassant, E. Zola).

Positivism actively influenced the development of aesthetic theory and Ten (1828-1893) - the first in France researcher of the problems of the sociology of art, whose ideas were affected by philosophical positivism about Comte. However, in the analysis of the historical development of art, he adhered to the position of Hegel. "And Ten sees art as a component of social life and culture of certain historical periods, noting the connection of art not only with the spiritual life of society in certain epochs, but also with the psycho ogiey narodsihologієyu people.

Under the influence of the philosophy of positivism consists of a psychological direction- aesthetics from below , unlike philosophical aesthetics, or aesthetics from above . The deepening of the idea of ​​the role of psychology in the field of eating, in particular psychological mechanisms of aesthetic experience, is carried out in the works of T Lipps (1851-1914) He considered psychology to be the basis of all humanitarian knowledge at the end of the 19th century, the scientific form of the theory of heard , considering the psychological factor as the basis of epistemology. The influence of positivism affects philosophy of life - direction theory based on Dilthey and G Simmel The theory of empathy was also the initial concept of their system. The requirement of concreteness in describing facts rather than explaining them, the rejection of rational methods science of the spirit in favor of the so-called understanding is closely related with positivism, but at the same time open the way to creating irrational and even mystical concepts of Borrowing And Herbart Kant's idea of ​​\ "disinterested aesthetic judgment and searching for the bases of aesthetic pleasure from perceiving forms and their relationships ( I perception) led to the formation of a formal direction in aesthetics. The philosophy of positivism, in particular the concept of unconscious and the theory of psychologism in, emerges at the origins of Freudianism - one of the influential directions of XX aesthetics in the twentieth century is composed of phenomenological interpretations of consciousness, which also affects the aesthetic philosophy of XX century. add to the phenomenological interpretation of the property, scooped out on the aesthetics.

To assess the scale of the influence of positivism methodology on the aesthetics of the XIX-XX centuries, let us follow the main ways of its development and distribution geography. However, since the second half of the XIX century, various types of aesthetic knowledge appear in local aesthetics. This is due to the difference in methodological approaches in the study certain aspects of the aesthetic [18, book С, h 1, p 14] And the main goal is seen in the separation of aesthetics from the philosophy from above Researchers of the Leningrad (St. Petersburg) school of philosophical aesthetics The following main types of aesthetic knowledge are distinguished: psychological (or experimental) aesthetics, which was formed in the second half of the 19th century (Zeising, Fechner, Wundt, Lipps, Spencer, etc.), its other direction is physiological aesthetics (Grant-Allen) psychoanalytic aesthetics (XX century - Freud) At the end of the XIX century is a sociological orientation of aesthetic thought (Hugo, Lalo) and socio-psychological (Tarde). The third concrete scientific orientation is defined as art criticism, aimed at dissolving aesthetics in the art-theoretical analysis of specific types of art (Zemper, Hildebrand, Hanslik, Veselovsky, Wölflin, etc.) Within the framework of the third direction, the methodological position of which I finally have a formalistic character, the following subtypes are distinguished: "formalistic aesthetics" (Herbart, Fiedler), figurative formalism (Hildebrand, Wölflin, Fry, etc.), avant-garde movement and formalist aesthetics The fourth direction can be rightfully defined as a cultural, or cultural and historical orientation este Iki (Grosse, Bucher, Mining) He relied on the development of philosophical culture (Nietzsche, Danilevsky, Spengler) and on the achievements of ethnography and archeology. Further, thanks to the development of specific industries - linguistics, information theory, semiotic (or semantic or structural) aesthetics were formed. , informational or cyber-aesthetics. Undoubtedly, they broadened the boundaries of comprehension of the laws of aesthetic knowledge and expanded the boundaries of aesthetic knowledge.

We will follow the development of these trends in different countries, representing different aesthetic schools, and, consequently, of different approaches to the interpretation of aesthetics problems within the framework of these areas.

In the German post-classical aesthetics, methodological pluralism dominated positivism, which levels the method of philosophical deduction in aesthetics. Here a number of philosophical and aesthetic trends are highlighted, developing along the Hegelian, Feuerbach, Kantian traditions, and using the positivistic methodology, Fr Fisch was an outstanding representative of Hegelian orientation. (1807-1887), author of work Aesthetics, or the science of the beautiful . Analyzing the problems of aesthetics, the philosopher seeks to combine the basic concepts of es Hegel’s thematic system with the ideas of subjectivism and irraticism in the artistic and creative process.

In the 70s of the XIX century on the basis of the methodology of positivism, specific sciences and subjective-idealistic interpretation of aesthetic theory and Kant consists neo-Kantian direction. His representatives - and the herbarium of Hg and G Lotz tried to use separate positions of aesthetics and Kant to substantiate their own aesthetic concepts and Herbart with Positions of psychology deepens the understanding of human abilities, in particular, the KIO kremlyue as a variety of a single ability of imagination. Two types of judgments: logical and aesthetic. Outside of sensory scientific knowledge, the second is connected with sensory response to the quality of the object of intelligence from the disinterestedly aesthetic perception and aesthetic imagination in the context of upbringing ideas. It formulates the ideas of a new scientific discipline - the psychology of art. The psychological experiments of the scientist also gave a foundation state: the assessment of individual elements of perception (sound, color) acquires aesthetic certainty only because they are perceived against the background of other sounds and towards Lera, regarding them By further attempts to find simple relationships, entering into aesthetically neutral elements form an aesthetic quality, the philosopher began a tendency to form hyperbolism of form.

On the basis of ideas and Herbart consisted of formalistic aesthetics - the direction, headed by R. Zimmerman, the author of the work Universal aesthetics as the science of form (1865) An important foundation in the study of the problems of moral perception was made by G. Lotz (\ "On the concept of beauty - 1845, The principles of aesthetics - 1884, The history of aesthetics in Germany - 1864) The scientist departs from the psychologisation of aesthetic perception - the ideas in which R. Zimmerman was immersed, and proves the subjective nature of aesthetic, joining the position of Kant G Lotze considers the only the reality of aesthetic - its reality in the mind of P see the aesthetic as spiritual reality and defining its role as a spiritual phenomenon, Mr. Lotze introduces a new concept into the history of philosophy - value He perceives the aesthetic unity of the phenomenon and cynnisog in content; it does not directly contain since it is a spiritual reality. So, the aesthetic is characterized by sense. Otzhe, naturally characterized by non-heroic behavior.

Within the framework of the Kantian line of German philosophical aesthetics, the theory of musical aesthetics was developed by E. Hanslick (1825-1904). The main idea of ​​his work On Musically Beautiful (1853) is the denial of the content and music and the rationale for the principles of musical formalism. these are mobile sound forms ; musical perception is pure contemplation of form [23, p. 564] Perfect for Hanslik is pure form , and musical creativity is pure contemplation the main requirement of the critic to the composer is the spontaneity of musical expression. the essence of musical art E Hanslik goes about absolutizing the thesis and Kant about beauty as a play of forms His theory of musical aesthetics is described as formalistic rationalism [18, c, h 1, with 41 and characterizing yak "formalistic racionalism" [ 18, kya. W, h. 1, p. 41].

Neo-Kantianism - the direction that emerged in German aesthetics at the end of the 19th century in two philosophical schools: Marburg headed by G. Kogen and Baden, whose most prominent representatives were V Windelb bandnd,

Mr. Rickert and I Kon. The latter's work "General Aesthetics" (1901) summarizes the aesthetic views of the Baden School. G. Cohen - professor of the Marburg School, author of the works "Justification by Kant of Aesthetics" (1889)) and "Aesthetics of pure feeling". (1912) - aims to defend the pithiness of the aesthetic in the controversy with formalism. He adheres to the ideas of Kant about the active nature of human consciousness, considering May and the directions of production of its content, defined in the philosophical trilogy of Kant. Along with "pure thinking" and "pure" Will G. Cohen differs t pure feeling , defining its special state of consciousness, ui is born in the subject as a whole person. It is a result of the person’s cognitive and moral ability, a product of the game of imagination. Studying the origin, patterns, specificity of this feeling and is, according to G. Cohen, the task of aesthetics [18, kn S, h 1, p 42] Pure feelings the scientist considers the generic state of consciousness, the virtue - the representative of mankind in a way in which the aesthetic feeling of objects em itself, is a symbol He is a visual representation, embodying ie the total that appears abroad, completing the inductive range of representations according to Mr. Cohen on the symbolic nature of art developed in detail in the work of Cassirer E philosophy of symbolic nature formіchnu Mistetstvo detail rozroblena in pratsі E. Kassіrera" Fіlosofіya simvolіchnih forms. "

And Cohn (Baden School) rejected the principles of logical analysis of aesthetic issues, explaining the logical non-motivated aesthetic value. The content of the latter he considers expression of the inner life . His idea of ​​aesthetic empathy is important to his aesthetic theory. It is caused by contemplation of nature, in which the subject transfers on the nature of their own mood, so that won and expressiveness therefore every phenomenon of reality can arise the subject of aesthetic Wonderful contemplation as empathy expression However, it acquires aesthetic certainty only under the condition of a specific natural design method and Cohn puts forward two principles of aesthetic values: the expression principle and form principle The ability of aesthetic values ​​to convey immediate experiences ( which you can’t convey logically) and Cohn considers it an important aesthetic mission of art. The latter possesses the language that our souls free speak with each other like our souls" speak naively one of odnoyu ".

Along with the philosophical aesthetics (we have already examined its scientific schools), directions for the methodology of specific sciences — psychology, sociology, culturology — became directions in German aesthetics. Everyone was headed for positivistic methodology by prominent representatives of psychological aesthetics — G. Fechner, A. Zeising, T Lipps , And Volkelt, K Gros, W. Wundt Orientation to experiment during the refinement of certain provisions of aesthetic theory is the leading principle of "aesthetics from below" (as stated by the founder of "psychological aesthetics" G. Fechner) Representatives of this direction adhered to the principle of subjectivism m in bringing the foundations of aesthetic perception and experience. Wundt was the author of the development of the theory of fantasy. The philosopher distinguishes spatial and temporal fantasies, and also substantiates the game’s “theory”, arising from fantasy, like the arts; gri, scho vinik є s fantasia, yak i mystitstvo.

In the second half of the XIX century, in France, the direction of the "second positivism" emerged. Subjective idealism remains its ideological orientation. Psychological and sociological aesthetics, which is created on the basis of posturing and Ivistic orientations, strengthened links with the general theory of aesthetics. Within its framework, the researchers focus on clarifying the role art in the development of feelings, imagination, as well as on their mutual connection Sociologist G. Tarde in his work Art and Logic (1891) argues that the main purpose of art is to give social This is not original, because it comes from both aesthetics and Kant regarding the disinterested nature of aesthetic experience. The famous French psychologist T Ribot defended such positions on the purpose of art. In studies Creative imagination (1900) and Logic feelings (1905) account for the value of emotions, fantasy, imagination as necessary means of human practical activity , because the feeling is present in logical evidence. These searches were relevant and for psychology, which consisted in an independent science, and for the theory of aesthetics for psychology, it was put into a separate science, and for the theory of aesthetics.

In the aesthetics of W M Guyot (\ "The Problems of Modern Aesthetics - 1884, Art from the Sociology Point of View - 1889) there is a synthesis of a sociological approach to aesthetics and psychological orientations. In the mainstream of positivism, p are considered the origins of aesthetic feelings, nature Art assignments and under Expanding the boundaries of art, J. Guyot remarks: it is not the sphere of the game, but the moment of the transition of the game to work. Aesthetic experience Ivanna acquires special value as a factor of inducement to activities in various fields. Much attention is paid to the problem of t Lanta and genius, however, the origins of this ability are associated with a biologizing approach. According to the researchers, the value of J Huyot's aesthetic ideas lies in trying to synthesize philosophical, sociological, psychological, and socio-psychological approaches to art [18, сn, h 1, I am 113 [18, Vol. W, h. 1, p. 113].

In English aesthetics of the second half of the 19th century, biological and psychophysiological approaches to analyzing aesthetic problems were influential. Here influence of H Darwin's evolutionary theory is traced, beauty was considered an important factor in natural selection. also in relation to the socially viable forms of human activity. In his work Experiments he expresses an opinion on the interaction of practical and aesthetic functions of objectivity: what is useful subject for one epoch becomes subject of adornment for subsequent This statement is somewhat categorical, since the ratio of useful and beautiful is considered according to the principle of "or - or", although neither practical nor aesthetic functions are opposed friend of the day Having borrowed from F Schiller the idea of ​​the playful nature of art, Mr. Spencer gave this concept of biological and psychophysiological content to G. Allen, a student of Mr. Spencer, in his book Physiological Aesthetics (1877)