Glossary of key terms

Lecture

DICTIONARY OF BASIC CONCEPTS

Autocephaly - self-governance, the administrative independence of Orthodox churches. The first autocephalous churches arose in the process of the separation of the patriarchates and metropolitanates of the Byzantine provinces (Alexandria, Antioch, Palestine), driven by the desire to become independent of the imperial and ecclesiastical authority concentrated in the hands of the Patriarch of Constantinople. After the separation of a number of Orthodox churches, the Patriarchs of Constantinople retained, according to tradition, only «first place of honor» among the other heads of the Orthodox churches. In 1448 a council of Russian bishops installed Jonah as Metropolitan of Moscow and All Rus', thereby laying the foundation for the autocephaly of the Russian Orthodox Church; in 1589 the patriarchate was established in Russia, signifying the church's independence from the Patriarch of Constantinople. As Orthodoxy spread, as independent states formed in the 19th-20th centuries, and as Orthodox communities sought self-governance, new autocephalous churches appeared. At present there are 15 of them. In accordance with church tradition, which takes into account the time of obtaining autocephaly, the official list of autocephalous churches is as follows: the Church of Constantinople, the Church of Alexandria (covering Egypt and some African countries), the Church of Antioch (Syria, Lebanon), the Church of Jerusalem (Palestine); the Russian, Georgian, Serbian, Romanian, Bulgarian, Cypriot, Helladic (Greek), Albanian, Czechoslovak, Polish, and American Churches

Church autonomy - in Orthodoxy, the independence of a church in matters of internal administration, granted by the autocephalous church to which the given church previously belonged as an exarchate or diocese. The head of an autonomous church is elected at a Local Council with subsequent confirmation by the patriarch of the autocephalous church. At present there are 4 autonomous Orthodox churches: the Sinai (under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Jerusalem), the Finnish and Cretan (under the jurisdiction of Constan

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tinople), and the Japanese (since 1970 under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus').

Lamb - a young sheep, the firstborn of the flock, used as a sacrificial animal. The expression «Lamb of God», used in Christianity, denotes Jesus Christ, who sacrificed himself and thereby atoned for the sins of mankind. This is nothing other than an element of totemic beliefs absorbed into the myth of Christ. In the Apocalypse, and in prayers and rites, Jesus is presented as an unblemished lamb, while on early frescoes he is depicted as a shepherd with a lamb on his shoulders (a personification of the Good Shepherd). The term is also used for the portion of the prosphora removed during the proskomedia.

Adventism (Lat. - advent, coming) - a movement within Protestantism that arose in the USA in the 19th century, in whose doctrine the notion of the «Second Coming» of Christ occupies an important place. The largest branch of Adventism is the Seventh-day Adventists.

Aggiornamento (Ital. - updating, renewal) - a term used since the early 1960s to denote the course toward the renewal of the Catholic Church.

Adhan (Arab. - to announce, proclaim) - the Muslim call to prayer. It consists of seven formulas, which the muezzin proclaims from the minaret of the mosque at the onset of each of the five prayers prescribed by Islam.

Akathist (lit. - "not sitting") - special hymns of praise and prayers in honor of Jesus Christ, the Mother of God, and the saints, performed while standing. The akathist consists of 25 separate hymns - 13 kontakia and 12 oikoi alternating in sequence. Each kontakion (except the first) ends with the exclamation «Alleluia», while all the oikoi end with the exclamation «Rejoice». Collections of akathists are called akathistniki (akathist books).

Axios (Gr. - worthy) - a word pronounced during the ordination of a deacon, priest, or bishop by all those participating in the rite, beginning with the presiding hierarch.

Allah - the one, sole, and almighty God of the religion of Islam. According to Muslim belief, Allah created the world, the earth, plants, animals, and man; on the day the world comes to an end, Allah will resurrect all the dead

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and will judge people by their deeds, sending some to paradise and others to hell. The God of the religion of Islam is the same God worshipped by Jews and Christians. From time to time Allah sent people prophets to guide them onto the righteous path. Among such messengers were, in particular, Musa (Moses) and Isa (Jesus); Muhammad is the last messenger of Allah to mankind, into whose mouth the Qur'an, the words of Allah himself, were placed. Only Muslims worship Allah correctly. Allah is the one God, and he can have neither sons nor any co-rulers or associates. The strictest monotheism is one of the most characteristic features of Islam. Allah predetermines the fates of people, who in turn must submit to him and hope for his mercy, which is one of his chief qualities. These qualities, such as omnipotence, justice, and so on, are expressed in the 99 «beautiful names of Allah». Allah has no concrete form and cannot be depicted. He is worshipped in mosques through prayer and prostration, thereby expressing submission to him. The principal place of worship of Allah is the Kaaba in Mecca; there is found the «black stone», said to have been sent down by Allah from heaven.

Alleluia (Heb. - «praise the Lord») - in Christian worship, a refrain of church hymnody addressed to all the hypostases of the divine Trinity. In Orthodoxy the Alleluia is pronounced 3 times with the addition of «Glory to Thee, O Lord»; among the Old Believers it is pronounced 2 times, with the third utterance replaced by the phrase «Glory to Thee, O God».

Altar (Lat, - high) - an elevated place in a church where sacrifices are offered during worship. The altar is separated from the main body of the church by a low carved screen or colonnade, as well as by the iconostasis. The inner part of the altar is closed off by a curtain. In the middle of the altar stands the throne. In Orthodox churches the altar faces east.

Ambo (Gr. - edge of a mountain) - an elevated, usually semicircular platform projecting into the middle of a Christian church, from which the deacon proclaims the litany and reads the Gospel, and the priest delivers sermons.

Lectern - in an Orthodox church, a stand on which the Gospel, the cross, and icons are placed during worship for veneration by the faithful. Around the lectern the pri

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est leads the newlyweds during the celebration of the church wedding.

Anathema (Gr. - curse) - in Christianity, an ecclesiastical curse, excommunication from the church, depriving the believer of hope of «salvation», and, consequently, condemning him to «eternal perdition». It was introduced into general church use by the Council of Chalcedon (451). It was widely used by the Russian Orthodox Church to discredit its opponents in the eyes of believers. Anathema was part of the Rite of the Triumph of Orthodoxy, celebrated on the first Sunday of Great Lent.

Angels (Gr. - messenger) - according to Christian belief, supernatural incorporeal beings, spirits created by God. Some of these spirits, tempted by Satan, rose up against God and became angels of darkness - demons. Those angels who remained faithful to God received heavenly bliss from him. Through them God makes his will known to people. The Byzantine theologian Dionysius the Areopagite (5th-6th centuries) in his treatise «On the Celestial Hierarchy» describes 3 angelic hierarchies, each divided into 3 orders. The first consists of the seraphim, cherubim, and thrones; the second of the dominions and powers; the third of the principalities, archangels, and angels. Orthodox Christian tradition names by name 3 archangels - the senior angels: Michael - the heavenly archistrategos (commander), the guardian angel of all believers in Christ; Gabriel - God's messenger who brought the «good tidings» to Mary; Raphael - the healing angel. According to the beliefs of the faithful, God assigns each person, from birth, a special guardian angel to help him in good deeds.

Anglicanism, the Anglican Church - one of the branches of Protestantism, in whose culture and organization much has been preserved from Catholicism since its emergence in the 16th century during the Reformation, when relations with the Vatican were severed; it combined Protestant doctrine with the Catholic dogma of the salvific power of the church; the established church of England.

Antimins - an obligatory and indispensable part of the altar table, without which the Liturgy cannot be celebrated. It is a rectangular cloth made of silk and linen mate

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rial depicting the placing of Jesus Christ in the tomb, the instruments of his execution, and the four evangelists in the corners with their symbols - the ox, the lion, the man, and the eagle - and an inscription indicating when, where, for which church, and by which bishop it was consecrated and issued, together with that bishop's signature. In the middle of the antimins, closer to its upper edge, relics sealed in wax-mastic are placed in a small pouch. The antimins is anointed with holy chrism, and it is unfolded and opened only at a specific moment of the service, while at its conclusion it is closed and folded in a special manner. The antimins is kept in its folded state in a special cloth, likewise of silk or linen, called the eiliton (wrapper, covering).

Antichrist - the figure of Christ's adversary, his antipode, depicted in the Revelation of St. John the Theologian. His appearance is understood by Christians (including the Orthodox) as an omen of the imminent end of the world and the Second Coming of Christ, in the course of which the Antichrist is to be destroyed forever.

Apocalypse (Gr. - revelation) - one of the oldest books of the New Testament (the Revelation of St. John the Theologian), containing a prophecy of the «end of the world» and the struggle of Christ with the Antichrist; the modern conception of the Apocalypse envisions the end of the world as resulting from nuclear war, spiritual impoverishment, destruction of the natural environment, and the like.

Apocrypha (Gr. - secret) - books containing secret teachings, accessible only to priests or initiates. In the Christian religion - books with biblical subject matter whose authenticity is not recognized by the official church and which were therefore not included in the New Testament. An apocryphal work is one lacking a reliably established authorship.

Apologetics (Gr. - I defend) - a branch of theology in which the essence of a given religion is examined and the features of its dogmatic system, moral principles, and role and significance in social life are elucidated. The main task of apologetics is the defense of religion from materialist and atheist criticism. To this end it seeks to demonstrate the impossibility of highly moral relations, cultural development, and just social order without true religion. In a similar vein it examines the questions of the relation

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ship between science and religion, and between religion and philosophy. Considerable attention in apologetics is devoted to proofs of the existence of God. Seeking to strengthen religion's weakened position, modern apologetics is being renewed and adapted to changing conditions of life and to the intellectual level of the contemporary believer.

Apostles (Gr. - envoy, messenger) - in the first Christian communities this was the name given to itinerant preachers. Alongside oral preaching, they addressed epistles to Christians on matters of doctrine. In the New Testament the term Apostles refers to the twelve closest disciples of Jesus: Simon (Peter), Andrew, Bartholomew, John, Matthew, Simon the Zealot (in another version - Simon the Canaanite), Thaddeus (or Judas, son of James), Philip, Thomas, James son of Alphaeus, James - son of Zebedee and brother of John, and Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus. According to the Acts of the Holy Apostles, after the death of Jesus his disciples, in order to preserve the number twelve, considered sacred among the Jews, chose Matthias in place of Judas Iscariot. Paul called himself an apostle, although he had not been a disciple of Jesus. Christian tradition attributed the founding of the first Christian communities to the activity of the twelve Apostles and of Paul. The most historically substantiated figure among the Apostles is Paul. Little is known of the others, mainly from the apocryphal Acts of individual apostles, composed no earlier than the end of the 2nd century and full of fantastic invention.

Armenian Gregorian Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church - one of the ancient Christian churches (founded in 301), belonging to the Monophysite branch of Christianity; at its head stands a supreme patriarch elected for life - the Catholicos of All Armenians.

Arhat (Skt. - worthy) - a saint who has attained the highest level of spiritual development - the state of nirvana, from which one no longer returns to earth.

Archbishop - a clergyman of the highest (third) degree of the Christian ecclesiastical hierarchy. In the early centuries of Christianity (2nd - 3rd centuries), from among bishops equal in authority there emerged a chief bishop - the archbishop - who was granted the right of ecclesiastical oversight over the others. With the establishment of the patriarchates (4th century), the title of archbishop came to be conferred exclusively on patriarchs and on those

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metropolitans who headed autocephalous churches. In Russia the title of archbishop was first received by the Bishop of Novgorod in 1165. Subsequently this rank was conferred on bishops as an honorary title, as a form of distinction. This practice continues in Russian Orthodoxy to this day. In Protestant churches the title of archbishop is borne by the heads of the churches of individual countries.

Hierarch - a general term for clergymen of the highest (third) degree of the Christian ecclesiastical hierarchy: bishops, archbishops, metropolitans, exarchs, patriarchs. It is used alongside the terms «hierarch», «archpastor».

Archimandrite - a clergyman of the middle (second) degree of the Christian ecclesiastical hierarchy; the head of a monastery; the highest monastic rank in Orthodox and certain other Christian churches; an honorary title of the superiors of large men's monasteries. In the Russian Orthodox Church the rank of archimandrite is conferred not only on monastery superiors but also on other monastics occupying high administrative posts within the church (rector of an educational institution, head of a religious mission, etc.), or it is bestowed as a supreme distinction on clergymen from the black clergy. Elevation to the rank of archimandrite is performed by a bishop during the Liturgy according to a special rite. The archimandrite is also given certain marks of episcopal dignity: the tablets on his mantle, the palitsa, the staff, and the so-called archimandrite's pectoral cross. Among the white clergy, the rank of archimandrite corresponds to that of archpriest and protopresbyter.

Asceticism (Gr. - exercise, feat) - the restriction and suppression of sensual desires, complete or partial abstention from satisfying certain natural needs. Religious asceticism finds expression in hermitism, self-mortification, fasting, the vow of silence, and the like. Asceticism opposes the earthly, the bodily - in the religious understanding, the sinful - to the heavenly, the spiritual. Asceticism, as a mystical «participation in the sufferings of Christ», is promoted by the church as a path to moral perfection; it is obligatory for monastics.

Astral World - an occult concept denoting the entire sphere of the subtlest feelings, energy, and matter,

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existing in another dimension, higher than the physical world. According to occult beliefs, it also includes the subtle energy sheaths that leave a person's physical body after death.

Ashab (Arab. - companions, comrades) - the Companions of Muhammad, those who accepted Islam and took part in the creation of the Muslim state during the Prophet's lifetime. The Ashab are divided into two categories - the Ansar and the Muhajirun. After the Prophet's death the Ashab formed the core of the elite of Muslim society, received the best portions of war booty, and had greater rights to occupy the highest state offices. It was chiefly from the words of the Ashab that the collections of hadith - traditions about the sayings and deeds of Muhammad - were compiled. The Ashab played an important role in the spread of Islam and in the formation of its religious system.

Atman - one of the central concepts of Hinduism, the individual spiritual principle of the Universe and of Man. The Absolute Spirit. The Higher Self. Selfhood.

Aura (Gr. - breath) - energetic radiation emanating in the form of rays or a «corona» from all objects and living beings; it has a certain coloration which, in the case of a human being, depends on his physical and psychic state.

Athos - a mountain in northeastern Greece, on the Agion Oros peninsula. In church literature it is called the «Holy Mountain» or the «Land of Monks» and is regarded as the center of Orthodox monasticism. The first Christian monks settled on Athos in the 6th century. Under the emperor Constantine Pogonatus (second half of the 7th century), the whole of Athos was given over to the monks. By the end of the 12th century Athos already had a large number of monasteries. At present 20 remain, of which 17 are Greek and 3 are Slavic. Athos is headed by the sacred Kinotis, composed of representatives of all the monasteries. The executive body is the sacred Epistasia. In their internal life the monasteries are self-governing. The Russian Orthodox Church has the St. Panteleimon Monastery on Athos. In the village of Lukino (Moscow Region) its metochion was opened in 1975.

Akhbar (Arab. - report) - Muslim traditions about Muhammad, his Companions (ashab), and his followers, a synonym of the term «hadith», which is more preferred among the Sunnis. The term «akhbar» is most commonly used among the Shia, who reco

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gnize only those traditions that rest on the authority of Ali and his supporters.

Ayah - the smallest distinguishable segment of the Qur'anic text, a «verse» of the Qur'an. Individual ayat, written or carved on stone, wood, etc., are used to adorn mosques and other buildings, and are reproduced on gravestones. Magical power is attributed to certain ayat and parts of them. Ayat are grouped into surahs (chapters).

Ayatollah - the highest title among the Shia clergy. A spiritual leader enjoying unquestioned authority among believers and clergy alike. The rulings (fatwas) of an ayatollah are binding on Shia communities and are not subject to debate.

Baptism (from Gr. - to immerse, submerge in water) - one of the varieties of Protestantism, which arose in the 17th century and adheres more consistently than others to the principle that the soul is saved through personal faith alone, and not through the mediation of the church; it attaches great importance to divine revelation, and does not recognize icons or saints.

Baptistery (Gr. - to immerse in water, Lat. - bathing place, baptismal font) - in antiquity among the Greeks and Romans - a section of the baths with a pool, later, among the early Christians, a place of baptism. Originally baptisteries were separate buildings with a pool, built specially for performing the sacrament of baptism. Gradually, in churches, the role of the baptistery for infants came to be filled by the font, located in a special narthex of the church, sometimes in a separate building. In those branches of Christianity where the rite of baptism is performed only on adults (Protestantism), alongside the use of open natural bodies of water (rivers, lakes) for this purpose, baptisteries are often built as special rooms with a pool or deep tub for performing the rite of baptism.

Demon - in Christianity and a number of other religions - an evil spirit that possesses a person or animal in order to torment them.

Bible (Gr. - books) - a collection of selected works of ancient Hebrew and early Christian literature, in

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which the basic dogmas and ethical principles of Judaism and Christianity are set forth. The Christian Bible is divided into the Old Testament, containing Judaic writings, and the New Testament, comprising the properly Christian books. As a whole, the Bible is the Holy Scripture of Christians, while the first part of the Old Testament - the Pentateuch, or Torah - is also the Holy Scripture of Judaism. The concept of «covenant» (agreement) goes back to the most ancient Judaic-Israelite notions of an agreement between God and the people, whereby God grants «his chosen people» the «promised land», while the people undertake to observe his commandments and precepts. In the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE, circles opposed to the official Judaic cult developed the notion that the ancient (Old) Testament was outdated and needed to be supplemented by a New Testament. Serving as such a New Testament were, in particular, the teaching of the Essenes (the Qumran community), as well as Christian teaching. The union of the Old and New Testaments became possible and necessary because, according to a tradition widespread in the ancient Syro-Palestinian region, a new law did not abolish but supplemented the preceding one. From the Christian point of view the Bible embraces the history of God's revelation and covenants with humanity, which begins with Adam, the biblical patriarchs, and the revelation to Moses on Mount Sinai, and concludes with the «good tidings» (Gospel) of salvation brought by Jesus Christ. Islam, too, recognizes the Bible as a Holy Book, although one inferior in sanctity to the Qur'an. The Bible has been and continues to be actively used by the church for the ideological underpinning of the state order. At the same time, in antiquity and the Middle Ages, and still today, it has served as a source from which believers opposing oppression and injustice have drawn, and continue to draw, justification for their actions. Biblical subjects are extensively treated in literature, music, painting, and sculpture.

The Annunciation of the Mother of God - one of the twelve great feasts of Russian Orthodoxy. It is celebrated on March 25 (April 7), commemorating the Archangel Gabriel's announcement to the Virgin Mary of the «good tidings» of the coming birth of the Son of God, Jesus Christ. According to theologians' interpretation, on this day «the foundation was laid for a mysterious communion between God and hu

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mankind». Hence the special significance of the feast for believers. The Annunciation entered the Christian calendar only in the 4th century. Its date was established by counting back nine months from Christmas - the usual term of a woman's pregnancy. The Annunciation came to Rus together with other Christian feasts and rites at the end of the 10th century.

Grace (Greek - charisma) - in Christianity, the divine power that grants a person deliverance from sin, the attainment of a virtuous life, salvation, and reunion with God. Unlike Catholicism, which considers Grace the sole condition for salvation, Orthodoxy does not exclude a person's own efforts as well. By virtue of free will, a person may accept the divinity of Grace or reject it. Hence it follows that only a conscious and unwavering faith in God is the decisive condition for the development in a person of the higher spiritual needs realized in devotion to God. Catholics and Orthodox believers consider the clergy to be the bearer and transmitter of Grace, which is the basis for its decisive role in the process of salvation.

Blessing - a special sign made with the hand, or the laying on of hands upon the head. It is performed by bishops or priests and symbolizes the conferring («bestowal») of «divine grace» upon those being blessed. On the feast of the Transfiguration of the Lord, the clergy perform the Blessing of Fruits - the sprinkling with «holy water» of fruits (mainly apples and pears) and vegetables that have ripened by that time and been brought to the church. At the all-night vigil, as a reminder to believers of Jesus Christ feeding five thousand people with five loaves, the Blessing of bread, wheat, wine, and oil is performed. The cultic practice of Blessing has its roots in primitive magic, from which it was borrowed by Christianity.

Blagochinny (Dean) - an administrative-judicial official of the Orthodox Church, an assistant to the bishop, exercising oversight over the churches and clergy of one of the districts of a diocese - a deanery (from 10 to 30 churches). The position was introduced under Peter I. The «Spiritual Regulation» of 1719 obliged the Dean to report to the bishop on the state of affairs in the parishes and on the conduct of the clergy. Later the position of senior Deans was established, intended to supervise the Deans. In addition, there are monastery Deans for overseeing abbots and monks.

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His Beatitude - a title of a patriarch, as well as of a metropolitan heading an autocephalous local church.

God - in modern religions, the personification of a supreme substance, independent of anything else, endowed with supreme intelligence, absolute perfection, and omnipotence, who created the world and governs it (in Islam - Allah, in Judaism - Yahweh; in Christianity He exists in the form of the Trinity: God the Father; God the Son; God the Holy Spirit).

Divine Inspiration - a religious concept asserting that the «holy books» were given to people by God or gods in the form of revelation. Christians consider the Old and New Testaments to be divinely inspired. Scholarly criticism has shown that these books are cultural monuments that arose in a specific historical epoch and have earthly authors. In Christian theology various viewpoints have been expressed regarding the divine inspiration of the Bible. Some theologians (Athenagoras, Justin Martyr, Tertullian) held that in the Bible not only the content but every word and every letter was divinely inspired. Other theologians (Origen, Epiphanius, Jerome, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom) interpreted certain passages of the Bible allegorically. A third viewpoint is expressed by modernist theologians, who seek to limit the divine inspiration of the biblical books to their general content.

The Mother of God, Bogoroditsa - in Christianity - the goddess-mother, the Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ, who bore him as a result of immaculate conception in fulfillment of the «divine plan» for the salvation of humankind. The cult of the Mother of God took shape under the influence of pagan cults of fertility goddesses, mothers of «divine infants,» such as the Egyptian Isis, the Babylonian Ishtar, the Phoenician Astarte, and others. It was closely connected with the notion of a dying and resurrecting deity. In Christianity, disputes were long carried on among theologians as to whether the Virgin Mary should be considered the Mother of God. The Virgin Mary was declared by Christian theologians to be «most pure,» an «eternal virgin» (despite the mention in the New Testament of the brothers of Christ). At the Ecumenical Council of 431, the Virgin Mary was officially recognized as the Mother of God.

Theology, theologia (Greek - the doctrine of God) - a system for expounding, substantiating, and defending religious doctri

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ne and ritual practice, as well as the totality of ecclesiastical disciplines setting forth the various components of this system.

Divine Service - a body of cultic rites and actions determined by faith in the supernatural and dictated by the requirements of doctrine, which create in the believer the illusion of direct communion with God and other «heavenly powers.» It is an obligatory component of the Orthodox cult, occupying a central place and a dominant position within it. It is performed by clergy with the active participation of believers, mainly in church, according to a long-established ritual, and is regarded by the church as the most important means of comprehensively influencing the emotional-aesthetic state of those present in church, with the aim of arousing in them a sense of personal communion with the «higher world.» Divine Service is intended, among other things, to instill in the believer an awareness of his own exceptionality and divine election, thereby setting him apart from unbelievers as persons deprived of the possibility of «communion with God.» Orthodox Divine Service, consisting of doxology, thanksgiving, and supplication, is a survival of ancient magic, of primitive sorcery. It includes such magical acts as prayers, bows, making the sign of the cross, the lighting of lamps and candles, the kissing of icons and the cross, hymn-singing, and so on. Divine Service is divided into public, whose principal component is the liturgy, and private: rites, prayer services, funeral services, and the like. Divine Service is regulated by the church Typikon (Rule); Orthodoxy does not recognize services outside the Typikon. Orthodox Divine Service is performed in national languages; dead languages are also used (in the Russian Orthodox Church - Church Slavonic). Although Orthodox Divine Service is a legacy of Byzantine times, each autocephalous local Orthodox Church has introduced its own elements into it, which are of no substantial importance but do lend the Divine Service an ethnically distinctive coloring, thereby placing the national in the service of the religious.

Theophany - a second name for the Christian feast of the «Baptism of the Lord.»

Bodhisattva (bodhisattva) (literally - a being striving for enlightenment) - a person who has attained spiritual per

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fection, the state of nirvana, but who has renounced personal bliss for the sake of helping suffering humanity. The Bodhisattva remains on earth until all people attain final liberation.

The Sacrament of Marriage - one of the seven sacraments of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches, performed in church at the contracting of a church marriage (wedding). The ritual of the Sacrament of Marriage developed gradually. Originally it was performed during the liturgy, and only from the 13th century did it become an independent rite; it acquired its modern form only by the 17th century. By lending marriage a mystical coloring, the church uses it to intervene in the family and everyday relations of its parishioners, for the religious orientation of newlyweds, and to subject them to its control. In the past, the Sacrament of Marriage sanctified the wife's inequality in relation to her husband and did not hinder unequal marriages, marriages of convenience, or marriages as transactions. Civil marriage was in the past characterized by Orthodox ideologists as «unlawful fornicating cohabitation.» At present, the Sacrament of Marriage is performed by the clergy of the Russian Orthodox Church after the registration of the newlyweds at the civil registry office. The church looks with disapproval upon second and third marriages and blesses them with extreme reluctance. At the same time, it does permit the church wedding of spouses who have long lived together without church blessing.

Brahma - the divine substance, the origin of all creation; the «World Soul,» the supreme deity of the Brahmanist and Hindu trinity - Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.

Brahmanism - a religion that arose in the 1st millennium BCE, directly preceding Hinduism, based on belief in the reincarnation of the soul and the divine supreme triad (Trimurti) consisting of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, as well as surviving animistic notions of the autochthonous population of Hindustan; Brahmanism is characterized by a complex and strict ritual performed by special priests - Brahmins.

Buddha (Sanskrit - enlightened one) - in Buddhism, an arhat who has attained nirvana.

Buddhism - one of the three world religions (along with Christianity and Islam), which arose in India in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, based on the teaching of the 4 no

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ble truths: suffering exists, it has causes, there is a state of liberation (nirvana), and there is a path leading to it.

Waqf (Arabic) - property transferred by its owner for religious or charitable purposes to a community, the state, or a private individual. A waqf could be a school, a mosque, land, or movable property. The descendants of the donor of a waqf could receive a pension from the income of the transferred property. Waqfs were exempt from taxes and served as an important source of livelihood for the Muslim clergy. Waqfs are preserved in many Muslim countries to this day.

Wahhabis - followers of a religio-political movement within Sunni Islam that arose in Arabia in the mid-18th century on the basis of the teaching of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab; the teaching of the Wahhabis is the state ideology of Saudi Arabia.

The Presentation of the Virgin Mary in the Temple - one of the twelve great feasts of Russian Orthodoxy. It is celebrated on November 21 (December 4). It is based on a mythical event - the presentation of the three-year-old Mary (the future mother of Christ) at the Temple in Jerusalem, where she was given by her parents to be raised. Emphasizing the special significance of this event, the church draws attention to the example set by the parents of the future Mother of God, who introduced their daughter to religious faith from the earliest age. In doing so, they pointed her toward the true path in life, which later led to Mary being chosen by God to carry out the plan of «the salvation of humankind» as the earthly mother of Christ.

Vedanta (Sanskrit - the end of the Vedas) - the most widespread Indian religio-philosophical system, based on the interpretation of the sacred texts of Hinduism.

Vedism - the most ancient religion of India, which in its subsequent development evolved into Brahmanism.

The Vedas (literally - knowledge) - the most ancient monuments of Indian literature, written in verse and prose, which include myths, legends, invocations, and hymns to many deities, and rules for prayers and sacrifices.

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Religious faith - belief in the real existence of supernatural forces, properties, and relations, based on divine revelation rather than on logical principles and proofs. Religious faith is the foundation of any religion, of religious consciousness and cult, and determines the worldview, emotional experience, and behavior of believers. In theology, religious faith is regarded either as an inherent quality of human nature or as something acquired by man through divine grace. Religious faith serves as the highest manifestation of human consciousness, the highest moral value, and a higher form of knowledge than reason.

Palm Sunday (the Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem) - a feast of the Christian church in honor of Christ's entry into Jerusalem, celebrated on the last Sunday before Easter; a movable feast among the twelve great feasts.

Confession (denomination) - affiliation with a particular religion, church, or denomination; a religious association having its own developed doctrine, cult, and stable organizational structure.

Religious tolerance - the state's recognition of citizens' right to profess any religion and to belong to any given church or denomination; a respectful and equal attitude toward all religions and churches operating in accordance with the procedure established by law; tolerance and mutually respectful relations among religions and churches, representatives of various religious convictions, believers and non-believers.

Believer - a religious person who believes in the existence of supernatural forces and beings and worships them, that is, performs cultic acts. Several types of believers are distinguished: deeply religious believers, for whom religious faith plays a defining role in their life and conduct; believers for whom religious faith occupies a secondary place in their life and weakly motivates their conduct; and wavering believers, who lack firm religious faith and display vacillation in their attitude toward religion and atheism, which is reflected in their behavior.

The Old Testament - a collection of selected works of ancient Hebrew religious literature, forming the first part of the Christian Bible. The Old Testament contains collections

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of the prophecies of the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Amos, Micah, Hosea, and others. It also includes the Pentateuch (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy). A third group of Old Testament books consists of books of an edifying-didactic character (the Proverbs of Solomon, in the Septuagint - the Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, and others), the Psalms - liturgical hymns of prayer, philosophical poems on the meaning of life (the Book of Ecclesiastes), and on why the righteous suffer (the Book of Job).

Vicar - (Latin - deputy, vicegerent) - a deputy of a clergyman.

Vaishnavism - one of the two main currents of modern Hinduism (along with Shaivism), the veneration of the god Vishnu, widespread mainly in Northern India.

Consecration of Water - a Christian rite of consecrating water through the priest's threefold immersion of the cross in it. It is usually performed on the eve of the feast of the Baptism of the Lord and on the feast day itself. In the Consecration of Water, survivals of the deification of water by ancient peoples are clearly preserved. But even now believers are convinced that after this rite the water acquires the properties of «holy» water.

The Exaltation of the Cross of the Lord - one of the twelve great feasts of Russian Orthodoxy, celebrated on September 14 (27). It was established to commemorate an event allegedly having actually taken place - the «finding» in the 4th century of the cross on which Jesus Christ was crucified, by Helena, mother of the Roman emperor Constantine, who made a pilgrimage to Palestine. On her instructions, as tradition holds, the cross was «raised» on Mount Golgotha near Jerusalem, where, according to the Gospels, Christ was executed. This event became the basis for the feast, the main idea of which was the demand for believers to follow the «way of the cross» of Christ - the only path leading to salvation. The significance of the feast for believers is also due to the fact that the cross is a symbol of the Christian religion. In celebrating the feast, believers thereby become imbued with the awareness that they honor this symbol, as it were taking a vow to humbly bear «their own cross,» relying entirely on the will of God.

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The Ascension of the Lord - one of the twelve great feasts of the Russian Orthodox Church, celebrated on the 40th day after Easter. Its religious basis is the Gospel legend of the ascension of Jesus Christ into heaven in the presence of his disciples. This legend is used to focus believers' attention on the divine essence of Christ and, at the same time, to emphasize the superiority of heaven (the supernatural, the mystical) over earth (the natural, the real). The feast of the Ascension originated in the 4th-5th centuries, and acquired its modern form and liturgical ritual only in the 8th-9th centuries. Ideologists of modern Russian Orthodoxy interpret the Ascension as a reminder of the priority of the spiritual over the bodily, the ideal over the material, and the sublime over the base.

The Eightfold (Noble) Path, the Middle Path - the path which, by avoiding two extremes - sensual indulgence and self-mortification - leads to enlightenment and liberation from suffering. It is called eightfold because it consists of 8 stages, or steps: right understanding, right aspiration, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right concentration.

The World Council of Churches (WCC) - one of the largest international religious organizations, the center of the ecumenical movement; it is called upon to promote the achievement of confessional unity among Christian churches. The members of the WCC are 306 non-Catholic Christian churches from 100 countries of the world. The Russian Orthodox Church became a member of the WCC in 1961.

The Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem - one of the twelve great feasts of Russian Orthodoxy. It is celebrated on the last Sunday before Easter. It is based on the Gospel account of how Jesus, before his martyrdom and resurrection, arrived in Jerusalem, where the people greeted him by throwing palm branches on the road before him. Among the people, the Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem is called Palm Sunday, since in the church ritual that developed in Russia, the role of palm branches was played by the willow. There was a popular belief that it possessed magical properties, ca

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pable of driving away evil spirits. That is why willow branches consecrated in church were kept in homes.

Gautama - the clan name of Prince Siddhartha of the Shakya clan, who lived in the 7th-6th centuries BCE, who attained enlightenment - becoming the Buddha (from Sanskrit «budh» - to awaken, to be awakened), the founder of Buddhism.

Gehenna (Greek) - in the mythology of Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, one of the designations for hell. Gehenna is the New Testament name for the «Valley of Hinnom» (in Hebrew - Ge Hinnom), stretching from Mount Zion to the Kidron Valley. According to tradition, in the most ancient times the Israelites here sacrificed children to Moloch. King Josiah, in order to eradicate idolatry, turned the valley into a garbage dump. The stench that came from the valley subsequently made it a symbol of hell.

Hermeneutics (Greek - explaining) - the art of interpreting ancient religious and historical texts, the doctrine of the principles of their interpretation, combining the foundations of theology and philology.

Glossolalia (Greek - to speak an unintelligible word) - according to the teachings of certain Christian confessions, the ability of a believer upon whom the Holy Spirit has descended to speak in «other tongues» («strange,» «angelic,» «unknown» languages), which is interpreted as his conversing with God. The theological justification derives from the New Testament book of «Acts of the Apostles» (2:4 - 18), which relates that on the 50th day after the resurrection of Christ, the Holy Spirit descended upon the apostles and they «began to speak in other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance.» From this it follows that the apostles received the gift of preaching in the languages of various peoples of the world previously unknown to them. The phenomenon of glossolalia occurs, as a rule, as a result of prolonged fasting and intensified ecstatic prayer, when the one praying falls into a state of religious ecstasy and trance and begins to cry out unintelligible words (glossolalic utterances) not existing in any language, or else meaningless combinations of words and expressions of his native language or some other language. The manifestation of glossolalia is regarded, for example, by Pentecostals as, in

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presence of the Holy Spirit, as an act of baptism by the Holy Spirit, signifying that the believer has attained a state of holiness and received divine grace, as one of the visible gifts of the Holy Spirit.

Govenie - the preparation of a believer for the sacrament of communion. It lasts several days; it includes fasting, attendance at all church services, prayer at home, and confession. Orthodox believers must receive communion, and accordingly observe govenie, no less than 5 times a year.

Golgotha (Heb. - skull, round hill) - a rocky elevation where, according to the Gospels, Jesus Christ was crucified.

High Place - in an Orthodox church, the place behind the altar table in the sanctuary where the bishop's throne is set upon an elevation.

State religion - a religion legally recognized as the official ideology of the state, serving as the spiritual-ideological foundation of its policy, and constituting one of the obligatory elements of the state system of education and upbringing; in a multi-confessional society, the state religion (S.r.) enjoys exclusive priority and support from the state. The corresponding religious organization (church, mosque, etc.) takes part in resolving the most important questions of state life, and is wholly or partly maintained at the expense of the state budget.

State-church relations - the totality of historically evolving and changing forms of interrelation between the institutions of the state and religious organizations, one of the constituent parts of the state's domestic and foreign policy. State-church relations (S.-c.r.) are based on legally established conceptions of the place of religion and the church in the life of society, their functions, spheres of activity, and the competence of all subjects of these relations. States regulate and formalize their relations with religious associations, as a rule, in constitutions and in special legislation on freedom of conscience, religious confession, and religious associations. The latter stipulates the socio-political and organizational questions of the interaction between the state and religious

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associations, the conditions of their economic, charitable, and educational activity, the ideological aspect of school and university education, the possibility or impossibility of religious structures functioning in the army, penitentiary and other state institutions, etc. World practice knows cases in which these norms are reinforced by bilateral agreements between the state and specific churches, or by international confessional centers, for example, concordats - special agreements between the Vatican and the governments of various states concerning the status and rights of Catholic believers and the Catholic Church in those countries.

The Fall, original sin - according to biblical conceptions, the transgression by the first humans, Adam and Eve, of God's commandment of absolute obedience, which led to their expulsion from paradise, the loss by them and their descendants of God-likeness, and the appearance in the world of evil, contrary to the divine essence. The early Christian apologists Origen and Clement of Alexandria proposed regarding the Fall as an allegorical account of the human soul's condition. However, in Orthodoxy the prevailing teaching, even now, holds that as a result of the Fall humanity lost God-likeness (immortality, absolute holiness) while retaining a distorted image of God, that is, reason and free will, which are most often used to the detriment of humanity and nature. According to Orthodox conceptions, the main purpose of life should be the restoration in man of the originally created image and likeness, which is attained after death, but necessarily in the course of a Christian life. The first condition for the forgiveness of sins is declared to be the acceptance of baptism, the second - resurrection from the dead. The ultimate purpose of the teaching on the Fall reduces, in the final analysis, to strengthening the position of religion.

The Holy Sepulchre - the tomb in which, according to the Gospel legend, Jesus Christ was buried after being taken down from the cross, and which he is said to have left after his resurrection. It is located in Jerusalem, in the Church of the Resurrection, which belongs to several Christian confessional groups, including the Jerusalem Orthodox Church. Pilgrimage to Jerusalem, regularly undertaken

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by representatives of the Orthodox churches, is usually called a journey to the «Holy Sepulchre». A liturgy is celebrated at the tomb in the presence and with the participation of pilgrims. The Jerusalem Orthodox Church has an Order and a Medal of the Holy Sepulchre.

Dalai Lama (Mong.-Tib. - «ocean teacher») - the title of the political (until Tibet's incorporation into the PRC in 1951) and spiritual head of the Tibetan people. He is considered an incarnation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion. There are 14 such earthly incarnations in all. At present there is Dalai Lama XIV (Ngawang Lobsang Tenzin Gyatso, b. 1935), who since 1959 has resided in the city of Dharamsala (India) and exercises spiritual leadership over the Buddhists of Tibet and other territories that fall within the sphere of influence of Tibetan culture and Tibetan Buddhism (Mongolia, Buryatia, Kalmykia, Tuva, Bhutan, and others).

Dao (Chin. - path, way) - one of the fundamental concepts of Chinese philosophy; in Confucianism - the «way of man», moral conduct and the social order founded on morality, which are the first cause of the universe and its principal laws in earthly life; in Daoism it acquires a meaning that is no longer ethical but ontological; by it is understood the primal foundation and lawfulness of being, its generative source; in contrast to Confucianism, here the Dao embodies a summons to man to shake off the fetters of duty and obligation and return to a simple life close to nature.

Daoism - a religious-philosophical teaching, considered one of the three main religions of China alongside Confucianism and Buddhism. The principles of the philosophy of Daoism are set forth in the book «Dao De Jing», whose authorship is attributed to the founder of Daoism, Laozi. The philosophical teaching took shape over the course of several centuries (4th-3rd centuries BCE); Daoist tradition traces the origin of the teaching to an earlier time (6th-5th centuries BCE). Daoism as a religious movement formed considerably later - at the beginning of the first centuries CE. The main content of the teaching is the concept of «dao», which constitutes the essence and first cause of the world. It is the natural «way», along which

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all people and the whole surrounding world follow, the law of the spontaneous arising, development, and disappearance of the universe. From this follows the principle of following the dao, in accordance with the nature of man and the universe. In observing this principle, an important role is played by the concept of «wuwei» - «non-action», which leads to perfection, complete freedom, success, and prosperity. Any action not in accordance with the dao leads to failure and ruin. The true sage is free from partiality and prejudice, does not grieve over life and death, and abides in calm and harmony. The most important thinker to influence the philosophy of Daoism is Zhuangzi (4th — 3rd centuries BCE). Religious Daoism formed a kind of «church», a hierarchical structure, incorporating magic, alchemy, healing, demonology, etc. In the 7th-10th centuries it became an integral part of the beliefs and rites of the broad masses of the people, part of a syncretic system alongside Buddhism and Confucianism, which influenced its formation. In certain periods of Chinese history it was subjected to persecution and oppression; its ideology influenced the work of Chinese artists, writers, and poets. Daoism spread to the countries of the Far Eastern region; at present Daoist religious associations exist in countries of the Western world and in Russia (9 religious associations).

Pyx - a small reliquary box, most often in the form of a small chapel with a door and a cross on top. The pyx is used to carry the holy gifts intended for the communion of the sick or the dying.

The Twelve Great Feasts - the 12 most significant feasts of Russian Orthodoxy. These include the Nativity of Christ, the Meeting of the Lord (Candlemas), the Baptism of the Lord (Theophany), the Transfiguration of the Lord, the Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem, the Ascension of the Lord, the Trinity (Pentecost), the Exaltation of the Cross, the Nativity of the Mother of God, the Presentation of the Mother of God in the Temple, the Annunciation of the Mother of God, the Dormition of the Mother of God. Together with Pascha, they are considered the principal feasts of the Russian Orthodox Church and are used by it as an effective means of ideological and emotional-psychological influence on people.

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Denomination - a term used in religious studies to designate religious associations that are in the stage of formation and organizational structuring, and sometimes used as a synonym for the terms «creed» and «confession».

Dervish (Pers. - beggar, pauper) - a member of Sufi brotherhoods.

Jatakas - stories about instructive events that happened to the Buddha in one of his past lives, presented as narratives told by the Buddha himself, who, having attained enlightenment, gained the memory of his past births.

Jinn - in Muslim mythology - spirits created from fire, capable of taking any form, including human. Jinn (J.) can be good (believing in Allah) or evil.

Jihad (Arab. - zeal, diligence) - holy war in the name of the faith. The Arab conquests began under the banner of jihad. In modern conditions, Muslim theologians interpret jihad as the struggle to put into practice programs of socio-economic development.

Zen Buddhism (Jap.-Chin., from Skt. - meditation) - one of the most popular schools of Far Eastern Buddhism. It took shape in China in the 6th century, absorbing many elements of Chinese culture. According to the teaching of this school, only through meditation can one comprehend one's «original nature», which is the true nature of the Buddha, and attain awakening (satori). In the spirit of the Mahayana tradition, Zen Buddhism (Z.b.) makes no distinction between samsara and nirvana, and asserts the possibility of attaining awakening in the midst of worldly life. It opposes Buddhist authorities and attaches no importance to Buddhist texts. The innermost truths of Buddhism, according to the teaching of Z.b., are transmitted directly from teacher to student. Z.b. reached its highest flowering in China (the Chan school) and in Japan. At present a considerable number of its adherents are found in the countries of Europe, America, and Russia.

Deacon (Gk. - servant) - the third rank in the Orthodox clergy. Deacons participate in the celebration of church sacraments and assist bishops and priests, but do not perform the sacraments themselves. Among deacons a distinction is made between protodeacons (senior deacons), hierodeacons (deacons who are monks), and archdea

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cons (attached to bishops and hierarchs).

Dikirion and trikirion - hand-held, shaped candlesticks with sockets for two or three long candles respectively. With the dikirion and trikirion the bishop blesses the faithful during divine services.

Din (Arab.) - religion, most often the Muslim religion; the totality of the religious duties of Muslims. The concept of din includes islam, i.e., the five «pillars» of the faith (the profession of monotheism and the prophetic dignity of Muhammad, prayer, fasting, obligatory prayer, pilgrimage), iman (belief in the truth of islam), and ihsan (moral virtue).

Drakhma - one of the concepts of Hinduism, having several meanings: the eternal moral law, the moral-social institution for a «righteous life», the primary elements of being, the psychic elements of a person's life activity.

Dukhobors - a Christian sect that arose in the 18th century in Russia as a protest against the official clergy, churches, icons, sacraments, fasts,

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