- Glossary of key terms

Lecture

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etc.; the source of their beliefs is the «Book of Life» (oral traditions).

Clergy - professional ministers of worship (the so-called clergymen), who satisfy the religious needs of believers. In Orthodoxy only men belong to the clergy. It is divided into white clergy (consisting of married men in a single, undissolved marriage; serving parish churches) and black clergy (which combines monasticism with priestly rank, and involves vows of celibacy, complete obedience, etc.). It comprises three ranks (degrees): deacon, priest, and bishop (the episcopate being attainable only by monastics).

Devil, diabolos (Gk. - slanderer), also demon, daemon (Gk. - deity, spirit), the evil one, the unclean one. Satan, the devil, Beelzebub, Lucifer, etc. - in a number of religions - an evil spirit, the source of evil and sin, the prince of darkness, the lord of hell, the father of lies. The conception of the devil found in the Bible, in Russia, was subject to some influence from pre-Christian Slavic demonology. According to Judeo-Christian tradition, the devil is a fallen angel created by God who violated his duty of obedience to Him. The devil is the antagonist of God, the «enemy of mankind», while the subor

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dinate evil angels (demons, devils) are a negative parallel to the angels of God.

Evangelization - activity directed at converting peoples and individual persons to Christianity.

Gospels (Gk. - good news) - books of the early Christians recounting the teaching of Jesus Christ and individual episodes of his life. Originally the word «gospel» referred to the oral preaching of the Christian teaching (it was used in this sense in the epistles of Paul). Then, apparently, individual sayings attributed to Jesus were written down. From these sayings, as well as from oral accounts of his life, more extended narratives began to be created, which received the name of Gospels (G.). Their authorship was attributed to the disciples of Jesus or their closest associates. Gospels were recorded in various Christian groups from roughly the second half of the 1st century through the 3rd century inclusive. Besides the 4 Gospels included in the New Testament, many other Gospels are known to have existed (of Peter, of Andrew, two of Thomas, and others). Archaeologists discovered in Egypt a library of Christian Gnostics containing complete texts of the Gospels of Thomas, of Philip, and others. Included in the New Testament are the Gospels of Matthew, of Mark, of Luke, and of John. Matthew and John, according to Christian tradition, were disciples of Jesus Christ; Mark was a companion of the apostle Peter; Luke, of Paul. The first three Gospels are similar, and go back to common sources; in scholarship they are called the Synoptics. The shortest and earliest of these Gospels is the Gospel of Mark, which contains no account of the virgin conception and miraculous birth of Jesus. Differing in content and style from the Synoptic Gospels is the Gospel of John, in which Jesus is proclaimed the Word of God (the Logos). The Gospels of the New Testament were written in Greek, outside Palestine. In Egypt a fragment of the Gospel of John was found on papyrus dating to the first third of the 2nd century; its original was created at the turn of the 1st-2nd centuries; the remaining three Gospels were probably written at the end of the 1st century. In the Gospel of Matthew the influence of Judeo-Christians is noticeable. The Gospel of Luke was written for non-Jews, and in it the condemnation of wealth sounds more sharply. Individual events are recounted differently in the Gospels: according to Luke, Jesus is born

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in a manger, while according to Matthew, in a house; the Beatitudes are given in different versions.

Eucharist (Gk.) - communion, one of the seven Christian sacraments, in the performance of which believers partake of «the body and blood of Christ» in the form of wine and bread.

Ektenia (Gk. - extension) - a kind of petitionary prayer included in Orthodox worship. The main types of ektenia (E.) are: the Great, the Litany of Supplication, the Augmented, and the Small. In addition to the four main ektenias there are also the ektenia for the catechumens and for the departed. These ektenias are proclaimed at the liturgy. Special ektenias are recited during the performance of the sacraments.

Holy Oil - olive oil used in church rituals. Holy oil is used to fill lamps, to anoint believers after divine services as well as the newly baptized, is used in the sacrament of unction, and is poured upon the deceased.

Unction, anointing of the sick - one of the seven sacraments of the Orthodox Church, performed over the sick. Its ritual consists in the anointing of the forehead, cheeks, lips, hands, and chest with consecrated oil, accompanied by the reading of prayers. The spiritual meaning of this sacrament, according to the teaching of the church, is that unction (U.) supposedly possesses healing power, and cleanses the sick person of sins which he did not manage to repent of. It is this last point that leads believers to resort to unction, especially in cases when they lose hope of recovery and seek to be freed from sin before they appear before the Lord in «the other world». Unction is a survival of primitive healing magic. However, for the church and its zealous adherents, it is an especially important rite, not by chance raised to the rank of a sacrament. The church uses unction in order to bind believers to itself even more firmly.

Diocesan Assembly - in the Russian Orthodox Church, the highest church body in a diocese, with the assistance of which the bishop governs it. It consists of an equal number of representatives of the clergy and the laity. Its chairman is the ruling bishop, who convenes the diocesan assembly no less than once a year. Among the principal duties and rights of the Diocesan Assembly (D.A.) are: the election of delegates from the diocese to the Local Council and members of the Diocesan Council; the establishment of necessary diocesan institutions; the hearing of reports from the diocesan administration on the sta

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te of the diocese and the life of the monasteries, and the adoption of decisions regarding them; oversight of church life in the diocese.

Diocesan Administration - a church-administrative body existing under the bishop and assisting him in exercising leadership over the diocesan institutions, monasteries, parishes, and clergy under his authority. The appointment of staff of the Diocesan Administration (D.a.) and control over their activity is carried out by the ruling bishop.

Diocesan Council - in the Russian Orthodox Church, the executive body of the diocesan assembly, ensuring the fulfillment of its decisions, and also considering and providing its recommendations on matters submitted by the ruling bishop. The Diocesan Council (D.c.) is formed from no fewer than four persons holding presbyteral rank, half of whom are appointed by the bishop, while the rest are elected by the Diocesan Assembly for one year. The D.c., whose chairman is the bishop, meets no less than once a quarter and, in addition, presents its annual report to the Diocesan Assembly. Among the principal duties of the D.c. are: preparation of the sessions of the Diocesan Assembly; review of the reports of deans; oversight of the activity of parishes; audit of diocesan institutions, as well as questions of the construction, repair, and restoration of cult and other buildings, and the drawing up of inventories of property under church jurisdiction. The D.c. also possesses the right of ecclesiastical court with regard to the consideration of cases involving the accusation of clergy and laity of unorthodox belief, of violations of canonical and moral norms, as well as issues of church marriage and divorce, of disagreements between the clergy and parish officials, and of all other matters relating to church order.

Diocese (Gk. - rule, authority) - a church-administrative district headed by a bishop - the diocesan bishop. At present, dioceses of the Russian Orthodox Church, as a rule, coincide with the boundaries of an oblast, krai, or republic.

Bishop - a clergyman of the highest (third) rank in the Christian ecclesiastical hierarchy. The first mention of bishops in Christian literature is found in

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the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles of Paul. Originally this term denoted elder presbyters chosen from among ordinary believers, who directed the everyday life of the community. Gradually a senior presbyter came to be distinguished among the presbyters, and it was he who came to be called a bishop. With the transformation of Christianity into the state religion of the Roman Empire, church organization was strengthened and the ecclesiastical hierarchy was officially formalized, the highest and most privileged part of which became the episcopate. Only a bishop may perform all seven Christian sacraments (baptism, communion, ordination, penance, chrismation, marriage, and unction), and in his hands is concentrated all administrative-economic and spiritual authority within the bounds of the ecclesiastical-administrative district (diocese, metropolitanate, etc.) that he governs. By ancient tradition, priests who have taken monastic vows - archimandrites - are consecrated to the rank of bishop. A bishop is also called a "hierarch" or "prelate," i.e. a head of the clergy, and sometimes a "holy hierarch." Administratively, the rank of bishop has, since the 4th century, been subdivided into a number of degrees: vicar bishop (vicar), ruling bishop, archbishop, metropolitan, exarch, patriarch. The name of the local church he heads is always added to the monastic name of the bishop. Unlike among Catholics and Orthodox, among Protestants the title of bishop is not lifelong, its conferral is not a sacrament of ordination but an appointment or election to office (with the exception of the Swedish and Finnish Lutheran churches). In the Lutheran Church of Germany and in some other countries, a bishop heads the church of a land, canton, or province. The same applies in the Episcopal Church of the USA.

Heresy (Greek - a distinct doctrine) - 1) a doctrine deviating from the dogmas and organizational forms of the dominant religion; 2) a deviation, a departure from generally accepted rules and views in society; an error, a delusion; 3) nonsense, rubbish.

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Crosier - a long staff with a two-horned upper crossbar, the ends of which are shaped like two serpents curving so that one faces the other head to head. At the top the crosier is crowned with a cross. The crosier is made of wood or metal and adorned with precious stones and inlays. It is an attribute of a bishop, a symbol of pastoral office and spiritual guidance of the faithful.

Sacrifice - a part of religious cult and ritual practice, the offering of gifts to gods and spirits, the slaughtering of animals (sometimes people) on altars, in sanctuaries, and elsewhere.

Covenant - in the Jewish and Christian religions, a form of relationship between God and people; among the Jews - the union of God with Jacob, the forefather of the Jewish people, and later with the chosen people itself; in the Christian New Testament tradition it is regarded as a union of God with all the peoples of the world.

Zakat (Arabic) - a tax on property and income prescribed by sharia, which in theory goes toward the needs of the community and is distributed among poor and needy Muslims. In a number of countries it has effectively become an ordinary state tax. It is levied once a year at a set time (according to the lunar calendar) for each type of property. Zakat is paid by the whole family. Zakat al-fitr (the alms-tax) is levied on every adult member of the family on the day the fast ends in the month of Ramadan and is intended for the distribution of alms during the days of Eid al-Fitr. Both taxes are levied only on Muslims of means. The usual rate of zakat is 2.5% of annual income, although among Muslim theologians there is no consensus on the rate of zakat or on the types of property subject to this tax.

Zamzam (Zemzem) - a sacred spring near the Kaaba in Mecca. According to Muslim legend, the spring miraculously gushed forth at the feet of the infant Ishmael, when he and his mother Hagar, left behind by Ibrahim in the Hijaz, were suffering from thirst. The spring was later rediscovered by Muhammad's grandfather, Abd al

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Muttalib. The water of the spring is considered to have healing properties, and pilgrims often take it home with them in special vessels called zamzamiya.

Zoomorphism, animalism (from Greek, Latin - animal) - terms characterizing the earliest religious-mystical notions, beliefs, and rites devoted to animals or associated with the cult of animals. The origins of zoomorphism go back to primitive savagery, in whose culture (myth, ritual, beliefs, language, oral folk epic) notions of animals as blood relatives of hunters took shape. The continuity of zoomorphism survives among many peoples to this day: the cult of the bear (North Asia and North America), the cult of the cow and the monkey (India), the veneration of the dove as an embodiment of the Holy Spirit in Christianity, etc. In modern culture zoomorphism has been embodied in various symbols surrounding people in everyday life, finding expression in animalistic visual art, fairy-tale characters, zodiac signs, constellation names, characters of myths, fables, carnival performances, architecture, applied arts and heraldry, and in technical creativity and others.

Zoroastrianism - a religion widespread in antiquity and the Middle Ages in Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, and Azerbaijan (named after the prophet Zoroaster, called Zarathustra in Iran), recognizing a single god, Ahura Mazda, the struggle between good and evil, and the ritual power of fire (hence the name "fire-worshippers"); it currently survives among the Parsis of India and the Gabars of Iran.

Abbot (abbess) - an ecclesiastical rank conferred in the autocephalous Orthodox churches on the superior of a men's monastery or the superior of a women's monastery. It may also be conferred on the rector of a church if he is a monk.

Jesuits (Lat. - Society of Jesus) - members of one of the largest and most influential Catholic monastic orders, founded in 1534 in Paris by the Spaniard I. Loyola.

Hierarch (Gk. - sacred plus power) - a general, collective designation for clergy of the high

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est (third) degree of the Christian church hierarchy: bishop, archbishop, metropolitan, exarch, patriarch. Used alongside the designations «archiereus», «archpastor».

Ecclesiastical hierarchy - a term denoting: 1) in the broad sense - the clergy, the totality of all church and clerical ministers (i.e., the «clerus»); 2) in a narrower sense - the totality of clergy of all three degrees of priesthood (deacon, presbyter, bishop).

Priest (Gk. - sacrificer) - the official designation of an Orthodox priest.

Jericho - a city in Palestine, destroyed by Hebrew tribes. According to biblical tradition, the walls of Jericho collapsed from the sound of specially made trumpets of the conquerors - the «trumpets of Jericho».

Icon (Gk. - image, likeness) - a painted, more rarely relief, depiction of gods, saints and other supernatural beings, serving as an object of religious veneration. Icons are widespread in Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Buddhism, and Lamaism.

Iconostasis (Gk. - image, icon plus standing) - in an Orthodox church, a wall separating the altar from the nave and set with icons. The iconostasis has three doors: the central, double-leafed one (the Royal Doors) and 2 side doors (deacons' doors). Icons on the iconostasis are arranged in accordance with the canonical hierarchy and contain depictions of Christ, the Mother of God, archangels, apostles, prophets, and saints. In large churches the iconostasis, for greater impact on the feelings of parishioners, was distinguished by richness and splendor, sometimes bordering on gaudiness. Some iconostases, created by talented icon painters, are outstanding monuments of church art.

Imam (Arab. - to stand in front, to lead) the one who presides at prayer, a spiritual leader, the head of a Muslim community. Among Sunnis and Shiites this is the name given to the person leading prayer in a mosque. In an individual mosque the functions of imam may be performed by the same person, however the imam (in this sense of the term) is neither a rank nor a profession. To be an imam it is sufficient to have an elementary theological education and to enjoy authority in the district.

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Imamate - the institution of supreme leadership of the Muslim religious community, in which secular and spiritual power merge. The differing understanding of the nature of the imamate and the role of the imam is the main factor in the division of Muslims into Sunnis and Shiites.

Hinduism - the religious-philosophical system of ancient India, encompassing such a great number of sects, schools, and movements that it appears as a conglomerate of related religious currents rather than a single confessional system. However, the presence of common features (polyformism, cultic practice, recognition of the society's division into varnas and castes, ritual-behavioral norms, etc.) allows Hinduism to be regarded as an independent religious-philosophical system. The name Hinduism itself dates to the 19th century. It absorbed a number of tenets of Vedism-Brahmanism, considerably modernizing them (the ideas of reincarnation, the passage of the imperishable soul after the death of a living being into another, karma, the Absolute - Brahman). At the same time it is a qualitatively new stage in the development of the traditional religion - its ideological orientations are addressed to broader groups of the population. A peculiarity of Hinduism is the absence of a unified organization; the brahmin priests lived in the world, had families, and ran households. There is no church hierarchy, the brahmin priests cannot be regarded as clergy, although there exist temples and even monastic communities, operating independently, outside any established organizational principles. The most general model of worship of the gods in Hinduism is connected with the concept of the «Trimurti», according to which the three supreme deities of the pantheon are regarded as the principal manifestations of the Absolute (Brahman): as the manifestation of the creative (Brahma), destructive (Shiva) and preservative (Vishnu) principles in the world. The cult of Brahma did not receive significant diffusion, whereas Shiva and Vishnu gained great popularity. At present Hindus are divided into two main groups - Vaishnavas, followers of Vishnu, and Shaivas - followers of Shiva. At the same time Hinduism retains worship of virtually all the gods of the Vedic pantheon. Until recently Hindus also deified outstanding preachers, sages, or founders of new sects. Hindu ritual took shape over

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many centuries and represents a complex structure, in which one distinguishes above all domestic and temple rites. Every twice-born person was required to perform daily five «great sacrifices» (repetition of mantras, the pouring of water in honor of ancestors, the casting of butter and particles of food into the family hearth, the scattering of grain and food remains outside the house for spirits and animals, the giving of alms and the offering of hospitality). Temple worship does not occupy as important a place in the life of a Hindu as domestic rites. The temple, in the conception of Hindus, is the place where God dwells, whose way of life does not differ from that of a king. The statue of the god was awakened in the morning, bathed, taken out for a walk, and put to bed in the evening; at certain times it was «fed» (food was placed beside it), its hearing delighted with music, and its sight with dances. The service of the gods is carried out by the temple staff. The pluralism of the Hindu system accounts for the absence within it, in the strict sense of the word, of canonical religious texts. Nevertheless its literature is vast and diverse. The texts of the «Mahabharata» and the «Ramayana», which constitute an encyclopedia of Hindu mythology, are of very great importance. Hinduism has received limited diffusion outside India (above all in countries that fell under the influence of Indian culture, for example, in Sri Lanka). At present certain currents of Hinduism and its ideas have spread in the countries of the Western world and in Russia (3 religious associations).

Inquisition (Lat. - investigation) - a special tribunal of the Catholic Church, created in the 13th century for the persecution of heretics, i.e., people who rejected the dogmas of the dominant feudal-Catholic ideology.

Adherents of other faiths - a legislative term and the official designation, adopted in pre-revolutionary Russia, for persons who did not profess Orthodoxy. These included primarily adherents of Islam, Lamaism, Judaism, and paganism.

Monk (Old Slavonic - one) - a generalized designation for monastics in the Orthodox autocephalous churches irrespective of their rank.

Heterodox confessions - in pre-revolutionary Russia a legislative term, adopted to denote

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the «tolerated» heterodox (i.e., non-Orthodox) Christian confessions in Russia: Roman Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Armenian Gregorian, Evangelical-Augsburg, Evangelical-Lutheran, Mennonite, and Baptist. With regard to the activity of the heterodox confessions and their adherents there existed a number of restrictions, among which one should note above all the prohibition on the free preaching of one's own doctrine among believers of other confessions, primarily Orthodox, and the prohibition, under threat of criminal punishment, of conversion from Orthodoxy to any other confession.

Enthronement - in the Orthodox autocephalous churches, the solemn installation on the throne of the newly elected head of the church - the patriarch - elected at a Local Council (in certain cases at a Council of Bishops).

Islam (Arab. - submission, devotion to God) - one of the most widespread world religions (along with Buddhism and Christianity), which arose in the 7th century in Arabia, recognizing as its principal dogma worship of the one God - Allah - and regarding Muhammad as His messenger; it exists in two main currents - Sunnism and Shiism.

Islamic state - in the contemporary world the term «Islamic state» is understood to mean states with a predominantly Muslim population, as well as states that have proclaimed Islam the basis of state legislation and the constitution. Many Islamic ideologues consider that Islam has no concept of the separation of secular and spiritual functions and everywhere promotes the preservation of the indivisibility of spiritual and secular power, religion and state. The long-standing preservation of Islam as the basis of legislation in Muslim states is explained by the fact that for more than a thousand years secular and religious power were concentrated here in the same hands: the head of state (caliph, sultan, or emir) simultaneously held the title of emir of the faithful. Muslim theologians consider that Islam and spiritual leaders have a thousand-year experience of governing the state, the economy, and politics, and that this religion is capable of serving the creation of a just modern social order.

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Confession, repentance - a Christian sacrament, consisting in the believer's admission of sins before a priest, who «absolves» them in the name of Jesus Christ. It derives from magical purification rites. Confession was at first public, then became secret and obligatory. In Catholicism secret confession was legislated in the 13th century, in Russian Orthodoxy - in the 17th century. In these churches it is a sacrament. In Protestantism confession is not a sacrament, but an important condition for release from sins. Confession is connected with the principal Christian sacrament - communion - which it, as a rule, precedes.

Judaism - a monotheistic religion with the cult of the god Yahweh, which arose in the 1st millennium BC in Palestine (widespread among Jews); the official religion of Israel.

Kaaba (Arab. - cube) - the chief shrine of Islam, a building in the center of the courtyard of the Meccan al-Masjid al-Haram. Built into the masonry of the eastern corner of the building is the «Black Stone», allegedly sent down by Allah from heaven. Muslims throughout the world turn to face the Kaaba during prayer. The Kaaba is the principal object of the hajj. Pilgrims circle the Kaaba seven times and kiss the «Black Stone». The Kaaba is covered with the kiswa, a black cloth, on which verses from the Quran are embroidered in gold.

Kabbalah (Old Heb. - tradition) - a mystical teaching within the Judaic religion, based on the symbolic interpretation of words and numbers in the «Old Testament». Set out in the books «Sefer Yetzirah» (Creation) in the second half of the 9th century and «Zohar» (Splendor) in the 13th century. The most ancient teaching about the mysteries of the Universe and Creation.

Qadi (kazi) (Arab.) - a religious judge in the Muslim community. Qadis made decisions both on matters of religion and on matters of family, inheritance, and partly criminal law, and ensured that Muslims observed their religious obligations, basing themselves on the ordinances of the Quran, the sunna, and sharia. As a rule, the decisions of qadis were enforced by the secular authorities, to whom the qadis were practically subordinate. The office of qadi appeared in the 7th century.

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Censer, thurible - a metal bowl, suspended on 3-4 chains, filled with smoldering coals, incense, and other aromatic compounds. Used during worship in Christian churches.

Kalym (Turk. - remainder, ransom) - payment for a bride in money and property upon a Muslim's marriage. This custom still exists among the Muslims of Central Asia and Transcaucasia.

Canon - 1) the rules of the Christian faith and life, the decrees of the Ecumenical, as well as Local, Councils and of individual authoritative persons; 2) a norm regulating monastic life; 3) the catalogue of books of Holy Scripture and liturgical books accepted by the church; 4) one of the forms of Orthodox hymnography, which took shape in the 8th century; 5) norms regulating the artistic embodiment of icon-painted images, in particular those laid down in the so-called icon-painting originals.

Canonization - in the Christian churches (with the exception of the Protestant ones), the enumeration, according to defined rules and procedure, of certain persons among the ranks of the saints.

Chaplain - a priest of the Catholic Church attached to a chapel (a cultic structure for private services), and also an assistant to the parish priest; a military chaplain in the armies of certain states, whose functions include the conduct of religious services in military units and the spiritual care of servicemen, and monitoring their moral condition.

Karma (Skt. - deed, action, duty) - one of the fundamental concepts of Eastern philosophy; the law of the cause-and-effect connection pervading the universe. In application to a person it appears as the conditioning of the successes and failures of his outward life and character by preceding causes, deeds, and aspirations. It may also be regarded as a fate that has taken shape as a result of the action of the law - the cause-and-effect connection. All the teachings of Buddhism focus attention on 10 kinds of deeds leading to good consequences, and 10 kinds of sinful actions. The 10 dark deeds include three physical acts: murder, theft, adultery; four verbal acts: lying, slander, verbal abuse, frivolous speech; three intentions caused by greed

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malevolence, and ignorance. The karmic consequences of murder: brevity of the life attained, constant fear. The consequences of theft: poverty, misfortune, disappointment, constant dependence on worldly circumstances. The consequences of adultery: many enemies, union with undesirable women or men, rebirth as a woman or a eunuch. Lying leads to a person constantly using foul language, being deprived of trust, and so on. Slander leads to the loss of friends. Verbal abuse produces an unpleasant voice, arousing revulsion in others. Malevolence produces deformities, numerous illnesses, and a repulsive character. Greed is punished by the fact that in the next life not a single one of one's desires will be fulfilled. The ten bright deeds bringing merit are generosity, moral acts, meditation, reverence, helpfulness, the attribution of one's own merit to another, the ability to rejoice at the success of others, and adherence to correct teaching.

Catharsis (Gk. - purification) - spiritual purification, enlightenment, the ennobling of feelings, the inner liberation which the human soul experiences in the process of communion (empathy, compassion, etc.) with the highest examples of spiritual culture.

Catechization - the process of instruction in the fundamentals of the faith, the task of which includes a popular and accessible explanation of the basic truths of the Christian faith in simple and clear form, usually in the form of questions and answers. Catechization is based, as a rule, on the Creed, the 10 commandments, and the principal Christian prayers.

Catechism (Gk. - oral instruction, proclamation) in the Catholic and Protestant churches - a book containing a brief exposition of Christian doctrine, usually in the form of questions and answers, intended for the initial religious instruction of believers. The catechism reflects both the doctrinal principles common to all Christian traditions and their dogmatic canonical differences.

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Catholicism - one of the main branches (along with Orthodoxy and Protestantism) of Christianity, which arose after the separation from Orthodoxy in 1054 and is widespread chiefly in the Romance countries of Europe (Italy, Spain, France, Portugal), in Belgium, Austria, Poland, Hungary, the Latin American states, and the Philippines; it has a strict hierarchical organization, headed by the Roman Pope with his seat in the Vatican; characteristic of it are the dogmas of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, of papal infallibility, a sharp distinction between clergy and laity, celibacy, and other features.

Kafir (Arab.) - infidel, unbeliever. A designation for all non-Muslims who reject faith in Allah.

Quakers (Eng. - trembling) - members of a Christian religious community of Protestant persuasion, rejecting church rites, the institution of clergy, and church sacraments, founded in the mid-17th century in England and now widespread in the USA; they call themselves the Society of Friends, preach pacifism, engage in charity, and campaign for a pious life.

Cedar of Lebanon - according to the Gospels, the tree from which the cross for Christ's crucifixion was made.

Kiot, kivot (Gk. - wooden box) - a shrine-cabinet, a decorated wooden cupboard or a glazed case for icons.

Kirche, kirk (Ger./Swed. - church) - a Lutheran church.

Clericalism (Lat. - ecclesiastical) - a system of views, a socio-political movement striving to strengthen the role of the church in the political and spiritual life of society and carrying out its activity through political parties in power in a number of countries of the world, as well as through various religious organizations.

Clergy (Gk. - portion, lot) - 1) the totality of all servants of the church, the clergy. In a narrower sense - the clerus, the ordained and non-ordained ministers of a single church parish, as opposed to the flock, the parishioners; 2) in the Church of Scientology, a certain state of a person, attained in the process of auditing. A person, upon

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receiving auditing sessions in order to become clear, is called a pre-clear in Scientology.

Kliros (Gk. - portion) - a raised platform above the iconostasis in the Russian Orthodox Church, on which the choir singers and readers stand.

Klobuk (Turk. - cap, hat) - an Orthodox monastic headdress of cylindrical form with cloth falling onto the shoulders, black or (for patriarchs and metropolitans) white in color.

Sacristan - a priest of a cathedral or church with a large staff of clergy, who is in charge of the sacristy and church vessels; draws up the schedule of the clergy's duties, keeps the record of duty rosters, etc.

Kontakion (Gk. - short) - the name originally given to scrolls of parchment with the texts of Christian church chants, and later to the chants themselves, which contain a brief description of a church feast or the most important moments connected with the deeds of the saint being glorified.

Conclave (Lat. - under lock and key) - an assembly of the College of Cardinals (since 1274) for the election of a new Roman Pope, and also the premises of the Sistine Chapel in which the election takes place (the number of participants must not exceed 120) and whose doors are walled up for the duration of the conclave (opened only after the election of the pope).

Concordat - an agreement between the Holy See (the Vatican) and the government of some state concerning the position of the Catholic Church, its rights and privileges: the appointment of bishops, church property, exemption from taxes, special rights in matters of family and marriage, and the conditions of diplomatic relations with the Vatican.

Confession (Lat. - acknowledgment, profession) - a creed. It is also used to denote a particular direction (or directions) within the framework of one or another religion, for example, Christianity.

Confucianism (from the name of the Chinese thinker of the 6th-5th centuries BC, Confucius) - an ethico-political and religio-philosophical teaching about the moral conduct of a person and the social order founded on morality; the fundamental concept is the Dao; until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911-13 - the official Chinese ideology.

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Quran (Arab.) - the sacred book of Muslims. The word Quran means «that which is read, recited» (i.e., what was said to Muhammad and what he repeated). It is also called mushaf, kitab (book), and in the text itself the name dhikr (warning, reminder) occurs. The Quran is divided into 114 chapters, called suras, arranged in decreasing order of length, with the exception of the first sura, al-Fatiha. In turn, each sura is divided into ayat. An ayah is a phrase or fragment of a phrase. In all the Quran contains from 6204 to 6236 ayat (according to different methods of counting), 77,934 words. Muhammad received the first «revelation» in the month of Ramadan, which is why Ramadan was chosen as the month of fasting (Quran, sura 11, ayah 181). For all Muslims the Quran is the principal source of doctrine. It contains instructions, rules, prohibitions, and injunctions of a cultic, ethical, juridical, and economic character. However, for an unambiguous understanding and interpretation of the Quran it proved necessary to create the tradition of tafsir, i.e., the exegesis of its text. The Quran as a source of doctrine is supplemented by a second source of the utmost importance for Muslims - the Sunna, recorded in the hadiths, or traditions about the prophet and his companions. Among Muslims there exists a traditional art of chanting the Quran. For centuries children in Arab religious schools memorized the text of the Quran by heart; today in most Muslim countries a secular system of school education operates, but the tradition of memorizing the Quran is preserved by those who are preparing themselves for religious activity. The Quran is a valuable historical and literary monument of the early medieval epoch in the history of the Arabs.

Kostel (Pol.) - a) a Catholic church; b) the name for the church as a religious organization.

Cross - a religious symbol venerated in Christianity. On the cross, according to the Gospels, Jesus Christ was executed, consecrating it with His blood, which served as the basis for the transformation of the cross from an instrument of execution into a symbol of redemption and an object of veneration. It has been established, however, that the cross as a symbol of fire and the sun was venerated in pre-Christian religions as well. In Christianity its official veneration was introduced from the 4th century, accompanied by the legend of the finding (elevation) of the holy cross by the Empress Helena. In Orthodoxy the cross is an obligatory accessory of the altar table in the church

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crowns the iconostasis, is placed upon believers at baptism, is depicted with the hands in the making of the sign of the cross (from the 17th century with three fingers), is laid at the foundation when a church is built and is raised above it, is constantly worn by believers (a body cross) and generally serves as it were a seal upon all sacred objects. A magical, saving power is ascribed to the cross. The form of the Orthodox cross is four-pointed, six-pointed (for the depiction of the inscription nailed above the head of the crucified Christ), and eight-pointed (with the addition of a footrest bar). Some diffusion in Orthodoxy (though less than in Catholicism) is enjoyed by the crucifix - a cross with the figure of Christ.

Baptism (Gk. - I immerse) - one of the seven sacraments of the Russian Orthodox Church. The performance of baptism is linked with the reception of a person into the bosom of the church. According to its teaching, this means that «the person dies to a sinful life and is reborn to a spiritual, holy life». According to the Gospels, the beginning of baptism was laid by John the Baptist, who baptized Jesus Christ in the river Jordan. However, it has been reliably established that the early Christians did not know this rite. In the words of F. Engels, it «is an institution of the second period of Christianity». The origins of the rite of baptism lie in the ancient rituals of washing with water, which existed among many peoples long before the significance of water for human life was understood; the ancients deified it along with other elements of nature. There was a widespread belief in the purifying properties of water against evil spirits and unclean forces. Vestiges of this survive in the Orthodox sacrament of baptism, the ritual of which consists in the immersion of infants in the font, chrismation, and the placing of a small cross on them. The church also permits the baptism of adults.

Epiphany, Theophany - one of the twelve great feasts of the Russian Orthodox Church, celebrated on 6(19) January. Established in memory of the baptism of Jesus Christ by John the Baptist in the river Jordan, described in the Gospels. Its other name - Theophany - derives from the fact that, according to the Gospels, during Jesus's baptism the Holy Spirit descended upon Him in the form of a dove. Epiphany entered the church calendar not earlier than the second half of the 2nd century, and at first it was celebrated on 6 January, together with the Nativity and Theophany. After the celebration of the Nativity was moved to 25 December in the 4th century, Epiphany retained

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its former date. In Rus the date of the celebration of Epiphany coincided with the end of the many-day ancient Slavic festival - Yuletide. Many Yuletide customs - folk games, fortune-telling - have survived in the everyday ritual practice of the Christian feast. A vestige of ancient beliefs about the purifying properties of water, allegedly protecting against unclean forces, is the Epiphany rite of «the great blessing of the waters on the Jordan», which was most often performed at an ice-hole in natural bodies of water, and today for the most part in churches. The clergy often call Epiphany the «feast of light», the «feast of enlightenment», since supposedly it was after His own baptism that Jesus began to «enlighten» people, illuminating them with His light. Therefore the baptism of a person, marking his reception into the bosom of the Christian church, is regarded as the most important act of life, determining a person's choice of the true faith. Herein also lies the basic meaning of the feast, which forms and reinforces the notion that only by entering the bosom of the church can people hope for resurrection and eternal life.

Krishnaism - the most significant and well-known offshoot of the cult of the god Vishnu within Vaishnava mythology and the religious system of Hinduism, in which Krishna (one of the incarnations of the god Vishnu) appears in the images of a divine shepherd or of a wise and merciful king and warrior; at present Krishnaism has received particular diffusion outside India.

Ktitor (Gk. - builder, founder, owner) - in Byzantium and in Rus - a person who built an Orthodox church at his own expense or who refurbished its interior decoration. The ktitor acquired the right to dispose of a portion of the income from the church and even to pass on this right by inheritance, and he also enjoyed other privileges. From the 17th-18th centuries the ktitor came to be commonly called the church warden, whose duties included the collection of funds for the church, care for its upkeep, etc.

Cult (Lat. - care, veneration) - the totality of rituals, rites, and actions grounded in belief in the supernatural. The principal varieties of cult are magic (sorcery, belief in the possibility of influencing certain mysterious forces and, with their help, the surrounding reality), a propitiat

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ory cult (appeal to a spirit, to God), the cult of saints. The origins of cult go back to paganism, which found expression in fetishism, magic, totemism, and the like. The centers where the cult is carried out are temples (houses of prayer), containing various cultic objects (icons, frescoes, crucifixes, etc.) and often representing classic examples of artistic creativity and the art of building. In Orthodoxy cult is recognized as a source of culture. According to the Orthodox conception of culture (in particular, that of P. A. Florensky), religion constitutes the essence of culture, its core, and acts as the sole creator, keeper, and interpreter of spiritual values, supposedly given to humanity from above as a reflection of «divine beauty».

Font - a large basin on a high stand, used in the sacrament of baptism.

Eid al-Adha (Kurban Bayram) (Turk.) - the Muslim feast of sacrifice, connected with the legend of Ibrahim (Abraham); the annual hajj is timed to coincide with it.

Lavra (Gk., lit. - quarter, city street) - a communal monastery, distinguished by a multitude of buildings, a large number of brethren, and renown. In Russia at present one Lavra operates - the Trinity-St. Sergius Lavra (the town of Sergiev Posad, Moscow Region); the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (St. Petersburg) is being prepared for revival. In Ukraine the most ancient Lavra of the Russian Orthodox Church operates - the Kiev Pechersk Lavra - as well as the Pochaev Lavra. All the Lavras listed have always been and remain male monasteries.

Frankincense - an aromatic resin gathered from incisions in the bark of the boswellia tree, which grows in East Africa and in the southwest of the Arabian Peninsula. When burned, frankincense gives off a fragrant smoke. Since ancient times it has been used in various cults both for smoking out evil spirits and for burning incense to the gods. In Christianity it is used for censing during worship.

Lama (Tib.) - a monk-priest among Buddhist Lamaists.

Lamaism - the Tibeto-Mongolian form of Buddhism, widespread since the 7th century in Tibet and Inner Mongolia

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(PRC), and also, since the 16th-18th centuries, in Mongolia, Buryatia, and Kalmykia (in Russia).

Lampada - a small vessel with a wick, filled with oil. Lit lampadas are placed on the high place, on the altar table, on the offertory table, and also before icons. Before especially venerated icons several lampadas are lit.

Liturgy (Gk. - divine service), the mass - the principal Christian service, at which the sacrament of communion, or the Eucharist, is celebrated. In liturgics - the study of worship - it is emphasized that during the Liturgy «the sacrament of communion is offered to God as a propitiatory sacrifice for the sins... of all people, living and dead, and at the same time as it were a thanksgiving - for salvation». The Liturgy is divided into 3 parts: the Proskomedia, the Liturgy of the Catechumens, and the Liturgy of the Faithful. The first consists in the special ritual preparation, from prosphora and diluted red wine, of the «matter for the holy Eucharist». The Liturgy of the Catechumens is the second part of the Liturgy, at which, according to church rules, the catechumens may be present, i.e., those preparing for baptism and those repenting of sins who have been excommunicated from communion for their transgressions. Only Christians may be present at the Liturgy of the Faithful, at which the sacrament of communion is celebrated. In the Orthodox Church there exist three rites of the Liturgy - of St. John Chrysostom and of Basil the Great, and the Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts, the order of celebration of which is set out in the Sluzhebnik.

Lutheranism - the branch of Protestantism with the largest number of adherents (about 80 million), founded by M. Luther in the 16th century and widespread chiefly in the countries of Northern Europe and in the USA.

Lucifer (Lat. - light-bearing) - according to Christian conceptions, a fallen angel, one of the designations of Satan as a powerless imitator of the light of «the Lord's glory». The ruler of hell.

La ilaha illallah (there is no deity but Allah) - a formula briefly expressing one of the main dogmas of Islam - monotheism. The threefold pronouncement of this formula together with its continuation (and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah) before an official witness constitutes the ritual of conversion to Islam. This formula is repeated by Muslims on various occasions and enters into almost all prayers.

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Magic (Gk. - sorcery, witchcraft) - the totality of rites and actions connected with belief in the possibility of influencing (attracting or repelling by means of imagined supernatural forces) the surrounding reality. Magic is one of the foundations of the formation of ancient spiritual culture.

Maitreya - a bodhisattva (one who has renounced the bliss of nirvana in order to invisibly help suffering humanity), who among Buddhists is called the coming Buddha, who is to follow Buddha Gautama.

Mahayana - the «great vehicle», the name of one of the branches of Buddhism; unlike Hinayana, Mahayana is characterized by a universal conception of liberation, the possibility of attaining the state of Buddha being granted to all beings, since they originally possess the Buddha nature.

Meditation (Lat. - reflection) - the inner concentration of consciousness on a particular idea, usually reinforced by contemplation of a corresponding object and leading to calm, inner harmony, and a supposed breakthrough to a new level of understanding of the essence of being.

Madrasa (Arab. - place of teaching) - a religious educational institution for the training of Muslim clergy. In Russia several dozen madrasas operate.

Mecca - the chief holy city of Muslims in the Hejaz (Arabia). In this city, an ancient center of trade, the founder of Islam, Muhammad, was born, lived, and began his preaching. At present Mecca is becoming a center of the worldwide Islamic movement. International Muslim organizations locate their headquarters in Mecca, pan-Muslim conferences are increasingly convened there, and the presence in Mecca of pilgrims is widely used for the propagation of ideas of Muslim solidarity.

Locum tenens of the patriarchal throne - in the Russian Orthodox Church (and in certain other Orthodox churches) one of the permanent members of the Holy Synod, elected by it for the temporary discharge of the patriarchal office in the event of the patriarch's death, his retirement, his being placed under ecclesiastical trial, or for some other reason making it impossible for him to fulfill his duties

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The locum tenens, together with the Holy Synod, is obliged, not later than 6 months after the patriarchal throne becomes vacant, to convene a Local Council for the election of a new head of the church.

Minaret - a tower at a mosque, from which the muezzin calls believers to prayer. A mosque may have several minarets.

Menaion, Reading Menaion - collections containing the lives of saints, set out in the order of the celebration of their memory according to the Orthodox church calendar, and also psalms, hymns, prayers, and canons for each day of the month and for the whole year in Church Slavonic. The earliest Reading Menaia are known from the 12th century.

Chrism (Gk. - fragrant oil) - a compound used in the celebration of the sacrament of chrismation. Chrism originally represented ordinary vegetable oil. From the 6th century balsam and aromatic substances began to be added to it. In the Orthodox churches chrism is prepared from olive oil, white grape wine, and aromatic substances.

World religions - these are conventionally taken to be Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam. They are characterized by mass character, cosmopolitanism, a conception of the equality of people (in sin, in suffering, before God), and active proselytism. Having arisen during periods of qualitative shifts in the life of society, they themselves exerted a profound influence on world history and culture.

Chrismation - one of the seven Christian sacraments, recognized by both Catholicism and Orthodoxy. Through it a person is supposedly endowed with divine grace. The ritual of chrismation consists in the anointing of the forehead, eyes, ears, and other parts of the face and body of the believer with an aromatic oil - chrism. The rite of chrismation in Orthodoxy and among the Old Believer-Polovtsians is linked with baptism.

Laity - ordinary believers, not vested with holy orders, the «flock» (as opposed to the clergy), constituting the main body of believers; the same as parishioners, the congregation.

Missionary (Lat. - mission, commission, assignment) - a representative, an agent of the church, specially trained and sent out for religious propaganda among the population.

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Mystery (Gk. - secret, sacrament) - among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and among the peoples of the ancient East - secret religious ceremonies, rites, to participation in which only initiates were admitted.

Metropolitan - a clergyman of the highest (third) degree of the Christian church hierarchy. From the 4th century the title of metropolitan was conferred on the bishops of the principal cities of metropolitan provinces. The spiritual authority of the metropolitan extended over a church district (a metropolitanate), uniting the Christian communities of the metropolis and the surrounding area. From the time Christianity was introduced in Rus up to the 14th century, Rus in ecclesiastical terms constituted a single metropolitanate.

Myths - archaic narratives about the deeds of gods and heroes, about the gods and spirits who govern the world. Myths were divided into cosmological and etiological (accounts of the creation of the world, the origin of people and animals), calendrical (stories of dying-and-rising gods and heroes), and eschatological (accounts of the coming destruction of the cosmos). Myths formed the basis of ancient art, at the center of which were conceptions of the creation of the world with the help of such heroes as Prometheus, Heracles, Sisyphus, and others.

Mihrab - a niche in the wall of a mosque, indicating the direction toward the Kaaba. Praying Muslims turn to face it, the imam leading the collective prayer stands before it, and near it stands the minbar.

Prayer - an address by a priest or believer to God, to supernatural forces, with a request for the granting of good and the averting of evil. Prayer is an indispensable part of religious cult, an obligatory attribute of rites, services, and church feasts.

Prayer book - a book, a collection of prayers.

Molokans - one of the sects of spiritual Christianity, which arose in the 18th century in Russia; it rejects priests and churches with their attributes and performs worship in ordinary houses under the guidance of elected elders - presbyters (during a fast they drink milk).

Monastery (Gk. - solitary dwelling) - 1) a form of organization of a community of monks, living according to a defined rule and observing religious vows; 2) a complex of liturgical, residential, utility, and other buildings,

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enclosed, as a rule, by a wall. Monasteries are divided into male and female, and by rank - into lavras, stauropegial monasteries (i.e., administered directly by the patriarch and the synod), first-, second-, and third-class monasteries, and staffed and non-staffed ones.

Monk (Gk. - solitary, living in solitude) - a monastic (in a women's monastery - a nun) - a member of a religious community, living in a monastery in accordance with the requirements of the rule and vows voluntarily taken upon himself «for the salvation of the soul». The highest hierarchs of the church - bishops - are necessarily monks.

Monotheism (Gk. - one, single plus god) - the religious conception and doctrine of a single God, monotheism. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are considered monotheistic.

Mormons (named after the legendary prophet Mormon) - a religious sect which arose in the USA in 1830, whose doctrine, recognizing the authority of spiritual leaders and polygamy, represents a mixture of elements of Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and ancient Greek religion; another name - the «Latter-day Saints».

Relics - the remains of saints, possessing, according to church teaching, the ability to work miracles and serving as an object of religious veneration.

Mujtahid (Arab.) - the most authoritative Muslim jurist (faqih), having the right to render independent judgment (ijtihad) on religious and legal questions.

Mullah - a minister of the cult in Islam, usually chosen by believers from among themselves.

Mufti - the highest spiritual person among Sunni Muslims, elected at congresses of representatives of the clergy and believers.

Muhammad (Mohammed, Mahomet, and, until the mid-20th century, especially in pre-revolutionary literature - Magomet) - the founder of Islam, «the messenger of Allah», «the seal of the prophets», i.e., the chief and last prophet of the true faith.

Muezzin (Arab. - one who invites) - a minister of the mosque, who calls Muslims to prayer.

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Sermon on the Mount, the Beatitudes - a sermon, according to the Gospels of Matthew and of Luke, delivered by Jesus before the people. In the Gospel of Matthew Jesus delivers it while standing on a mountain. The Sermon on the Mount contains the basic moral-ethical norms of Christianity. It begins with the Beatitudes: «blessed are the poor in spirit... blessed are those who mourn...blessed are the meek...blessed are those who hunger...for righteousness...» (Matt. 5:3-6). In Luke the Beatitudes sound somewhat different: «blessed are the poor» (in the Synodal translation «in spirit» has been added, which is not in the Greek original), «blessed are you who hunger now» (Luke 6:20-21). The Beatitudes have an eschatological meaning: the poor, the hungry, the meek «shall inherit the earth» (after the

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