Lecture
Jihad (from the Arabic الجهاد [dʒɪˈhɑːd] — «striving») — a concept in Islam meaning striving on the path of Allah, struggle for the faith.
The concept of military jihad (armed struggle for the spread of Islam) has become the primary meaning of the word for non-Muslims and has come to be known as «holy war». Some Muslim authors, especially contemporary ones, insist on a broader interpretation of the concept that does not necessarily imply bloodshed, and call the phrase «holy war» an inaccurate and unacceptable translation.
According to the Quran, every Muslim must show diligence in affirming and defending Islam, expending for this purpose their material means and all their strength. In case of danger, it is necessary to rise up in armed struggle against the enemies of the faith. The dedication of all strength and resources to the spread and triumph of Islam is one of the main duties of the Muslim community.
According to the historian of Islam Daniel Pipes, «the purpose of jihad is not so much to spread the Islamic faith as to expand the sphere of influence of sovereign Muslim power… Thus, jihad by its very nature is unabashedly aggressive, and its ultimate goal is to achieve Muslim dominance over the entire world». He also points out that jihad has always manifested itself in the form of territorial expansion. At the same time, Pipes notes that «many scholars and Islamic apologists claim that, according to the ideology of jihad, only defensive military actions are permitted, or that jihad is an entirely non-violent movement».
According to the interpretation of the Sunni theologian Abdul-Aziz al-Tarifi, the main goal of jihad is the propagation and spread of the religion, as well as the strengthening of Islam and its followers, while simultaneously weakening the influence and power of unbelievers. This principle is based on the verse of the Quran: «Fight them until there is no more temptation [to disbelieve] and the religion, all of it, is for Allah». In this context, the complete annihilation of kufr is not implied, since according to Islamic doctrine, Allah knows and has predetermined that disbelief and unbelievers will exist until the end of time. The goal of jihad, according to this interpretation, is to weaken the influence and power of unbelievers so that they do not pose a threat to believing Muslims. It is also aimed at preventing the aspirations of weak believers to imitate unbelievers because of their strength, and at preventing hypocrites from receiving strong support from outside. Additional benefits of jihad include, for example, the acquisition of spoils and poll tax from non-believers.
The radical Muslim thinker and ideologue of the «Muslim Brotherhood» organization, Sayyid Qutb, believed that jihad is a form of struggle against the enemies of Islam.
The Russian political scientist I. I. Khokhlov points out that the trends in the activities of Islamist extremists should be considered «global jihad». In his opinion, «whereas earlier the main attention was paid to revolutions in individual countries or regions with the aim of changing the ruling regime or state system, now priority is given to the struggle against the United States of America, Israel, and European countries». A similar view on the connection between radical Islamism and global jihad is held by Sadik al-Azm, a professor at the University of Damascus, who believes that this is a struggle for the re-Islamization of the world.
According to Dr. Boaz Ganor, executive director of the International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, radical Islamists divide the world into two parts — the «world of war» and the «world of Islam». Their goal is a worldwide terrorist war against those who do not profess their values — global jihad.
In 2014, the UN Security Council, in connection with the activities of the international terrorist organization «Islamic State», adopted Resolution No. 2170 on combating jihadism as a major source of international terrorism.
Some Islamic theologians, based on hadiths, divide jihad into the greater (spiritual struggle) and the lesser (ghazawat — armed struggle). As already noted, the concept of jihad refers not only to the waging of war, but also, in a broad sense, means continuous action and diligence in the name of the triumph of the ideals of the Islamic religion. This is mentioned in particular in the Quran:
The believers are only those who have believed in Allah and His Messenger and then have not doubted but have striven with their properties and their lives in the cause of Allah. It is those who are the truthful.
— Quran, 49:15
Also, «the great (or greater) jihad», that is, the spiritual one, is placed far above the «lesser jihad», that is, armed struggle. In support of this, Muslims cite the words of the Prophet Muhammad: «We have returned from the lesser jihad to the greater jihad».
Therefore, Islamic doctrine contains provisions on various types of jihad, in particular, the following are distinguished:
An analysis of the texts belonging to Imam al-Bukhari — an Islamic theologian, author of the most authoritative and reliable Sunni collection of hadiths, «Sahih al-Bukhari», which forms the basis of Muslim tradition (sunnah), and who wrote extensively about jihad, shows that in 97% of cases it refers to holy war as a religious duty of the faithful, and only in 3% — to the inner struggle for moral purity.
Islamic law, based on the Quran and the practice of the Prophet Muhammad, sets out a number of rules that must be observed during military jihad. In particular, this law prohibits the killing of: the elderly, women, children, clergy, and other civilians not taking part in the fighting.
Tradition distinguishes the «greater jihad» (the inner struggle against sinful behavior) from the «lesser jihad» (in the military sense). Early Islamic thought considered non-violent interpretations of jihad, especially for those Muslims who could not take part in war in distant lands. Most classical works use the term «jihad» in the military sense. The tradition distinguishing the «greater and lesser jihad» is not included in any of the authoritative hadith collections. As a result, some Islamists reject it as unreliable.
The most frequently cited hadith about the «greater jihad»
Several fighters approached Muhammad, and he said: «You have returned from the lesser jihad to the greater jihad». The fighters asked: «What is the greater jihad?» Muhammad answered: «It is the struggle against one's own passions».
This passage was quoted in the «History of Baghdad» by al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, an eleventh-century Islamic scholar. This reference gave rise to the practice of distinguishing between the «greater» and «lesser» jihad. Islamic scholars such as Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani consider that this hadith has a weak chain of transmission.
This concept had «an enormous influence» on Islamic mysticism (Sufism).
Ibn Hazm lists four types of jihad fi sabilillah (struggle in the path of Allah):
A related hadith tradition, which «found its place in popular Muslim literature» and which is said to «embody Muslim thinking» of the Islamic Golden Age (the period from the mid-eighth to the mid-thirteenth century, after the transfer of the Abbasid capital from Damascus to Baghdad), is as follows:
«The ink of the scholar is more sacred than the blood of the martyr».
Belief in the truth of this hadith was a factor contributing to the efforts of later caliphs to sponsor translations of «Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac scientific and philosophical texts», and this saying continues to be actively emphasized in some Islamic traditions that champion intellectualism over violence, for example in Timbuktu , where it occupies a central place in one of the two key lessons in the work «Tuhfat al-Fudala» by the sixteenth-century Berber scholar Ahmad Baba. However, in general today fewer people are aware of this hadith, which suffers from a «general lack of knowledge», according to Akbar Ahmed .
According to classical Islamic scholars such as Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, jihad is waged against four types of enemies: the lower «self» (nafs), Satan, unbelievers, and hypocrites. The first two types of jihad are purely peaceful, spiritual struggles. According to Ibn Qayyim, «Jihad against the lower self precedes jihad against external enemies». Affirming the central importance of the spiritual aspect of jihad, Ibn Taymiyyah wrote:
«Jihad against the base «self» and desires is the foundation of jihad against unbelievers and hypocrites, since a Muslim cannot wage jihad against them if he does not first wage jihad against himself and his desires before going out against them».
Participation in the greater jihad does not exclude participation in the lesser jihad. Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani recommended that his followers engage in both the greater and lesser jihad.
At least one important contemporary Twelver Shia figure, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, leader of the Iranian Revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran, wrote a treatise on the «Greater jihad» (i.e., the inner/personal struggle against sin).
Robert W. Schaefer discussed jihad and ghazawat in the context of the Caucasus: «Ghazawat was the jihad of its time. Ghazawat meant directing oneself onto the right path (what Muslims call the lesser jihad), as well as the expulsion of the invader (what is called the greater jihad)».
Since the time of the First Anglo-Afghan War (1838—1842), as in subsequent wars against Britain and the Soviet Union, and later against NATO forces, Afghan resistance took the traditional Muslim form of jihad — war against occupation.
In 1784, Sheikh Mansur, a Chechen warrior, at the head of a detachment of Muslims, declared ghazawat (war) against Russia. In 1791 he was taken prisoner and died in captivity. In 1829, Ghazi-Muhammad began calling for the expulsion of the Russians from the region. In 1832 he died in battle and Hamzat-bek took his place, and after him Shamil became the leader of the resistance in the Caucasus. Shamil managed to complete what Sheikh Mansur had begun — uniting the mountain peoples of the North Caucasus in the struggle against the Russian Empire. He was the leader of the resistance in the Caucasian War in Dagestan and Chechnya (1834—1859).
Soviet scholarship regarded «jihad» and «ghazawat» as synonymous terms.
During the Great Patriotic War, the Spiritual Administration of Muslims of the European Part of the USSR and Siberia (DUM ES) declared a holy war — jihad — against Nazi Germany. The then mufti of DUM ES, Gabdrakhman Rasulev, called on Muslims to stand up for the defense of the Motherland. «We Muslims well remember the words of the Prophet Muhammad: „Love of the Motherland is part of your faith“», said the mufti at a congress of Muslim clergy in Ufa in 1942. According to hadith scholars, the hadith about love for the motherland is fabricated.
They may be our enemies, but they are human beings. They consist of a civilian population, including women and children; how can they be killed, robbed, and plundered?
— Ali ibn Abi Talib, Nahj al-Balagha
The rules prohibit attacking or harassing non-combatants, including women, children who have not reached puberty, elderly men, people with disabilities, and the sick. Diplomats, merchants, and peasants are also protected from attack. Monks are considered non-combatants and are therefore immune; places of worship must not be attacked. Even if the enemy disregarded the immunity of non-combatants, Muslims could not respond in kind. However, these categories lose their immunity if they participate in combat, planning, or supplying the enemy. Some jurists argued that immunity is more related to non-combatant status than to belonging to a particular demographic class. For example, Muhaqqiq al-Hilli held the view that only the elderly are protected from death if they are not fighting and not taking part in military decision-making.
Up until the Crusades, Muslim jurists prohibited the use of ballistas, since this weapon killed indiscriminately and could harm civilians. During the Crusades this rule was abolished due to military necessity. Jurists grappled with the question of attacking an enemy that used women, children, or Muslims as human shields. Most jurists considered it permissible to attack the enemy in cases of military necessity, but steps should be taken to direct the attack at combatants in order to avoid the human shield. Abu Hanifa argued that if Muslims stopped fighting for fear of killing civilians, such a rule would make combat impossible, since there are civilians in every city. Mutilating slain enemies is prohibited.
Two rulings on the destruction of enemy property conflict with each other. In one military engagement, the Prophet Muhammad ordered the destruction of the enemy's palm trees as a means of ending a siege without bloodshed. In contrast, Abu Bakr forbade the destruction of trees, buildings, and livestock. Most jurists did not permit unnecessary destruction of enemy property, but allowed it in cases of military necessity, such as the destruction of buildings in which the enemy was sheltering. Some jurists permitted destruction if it would weaken the enemy or win the war. Many jurists warned against «unnecessary devastation», not only for humanitarian reasons but also for practical ones: it is more useful to capture enemy property than to destroy it. Islamic scholars forbade killing animals unless dictated by military necessity (for example, killing horses in battle). This is because, unlike property, animals feel pain.
The term «jihad» has acquired both violent and non-violent meanings. According to John Esposito, it can simply mean striving to live a moral and virtuous life, to spread and defend Islam, and to fight injustice and oppression, among other things. The relative importance of the two forms of jihad is a matter of debate. Rudolph Peters wrote that in the modern world, traditionalist Muslims understand jihad from classical works of fiqh; modernist Muslims view jihad as just war in international law and emphasize its defensive aspects; while fundamentalists view it as the expansion of Islam and the realization of Islamic ideals. David Cook wrote that Muslims understand jihad in the military sense, in both classical and modern texts. Cook found the idea that jihad is not primarily about violence in Sufi texts and among the Western scholars who study them, or among Muslim apologists. Gallup stated that its polls show that the concept of jihad among Muslims is «considerably more nuanced than the single sense in which Western commentators invariably use the term».
In a Gallup poll, Muslims in eight countries were asked to define jihad. In Lebanon, Kuwait, Jordan, and Morocco, the most common answer was «duty to God», «divine duty», or «worship of God» without any military connotations. In Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, and Indonesia, many answers included «sacrificing one's life for Islam/God/a just cause» or «fighting against the opponents of Islam». Other common meanings of «jihad» in the Muslim world include «commitment to hard work», «promoting peace», and «living according to the principles of Islam». The terminology has also been applied to the struggle for women's liberation.
The Shia Muslim scholar Mahmoud M. Ayoub stated: «The goal of true jihad is to achieve harmony between islam (submission), iman (faith), and ihsan (righteous living)». Jihad is a process encompassing both individual and social reform, called jihad fi sabil Allah («struggle in the path of God»), and can be undertaken in accordance with the Quran (jihad bi-al-Quran). According to Ayoub, the greatest jihad is the struggle of every Muslim against social, moral, and political evil. However, depending on social and political circumstances, jihad can be regarded as a sixth core duty (fard) incumbent upon the entire Muslim community (ummah) when its integrity is under threat, in which case jihad becomes an «absolute duty» (fard 'ayn), or when social and religious reform is seriously impeded. Otherwise it is a «limited duty» (fard kifaya) incumbent upon those directly involved. These rules apply to armed struggle, or «jihad of the sword».
In modern times, the Pakistani scholar and professor Fazlur Rahman Malik used this term to describe the struggle to establish a «just moral-social order» , while the president of Tunisia, Habib Bourguiba, used it to describe the struggle for economic development in that country.
According to the BBC, a third meaning of the word jihad is the struggle to build a good society. In a commentary on the hadith collection Sahih Muslim entitled «Al-Minhaj», the medieval Islamic scholar Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi stated: «One of the collective duties of society as a whole (fard kifaya) is to voice reasoned protest, resolve religious issues, know the Divine Law, and enjoin what is right and forbid wrongful conduct».
The scholar Natana J. DeLong-Bas lists a number of types of «jihad» proposed by Muslims:
Other «types» mentioned include:
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