- Glossary of religious studies terms

Lecture

Это продолжение увлекательной статьи про словарь терминов по религиоведению.

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etc.), which allows Hinduism to be regarded as an independent religious-philosophical system. One cannot become a Hindu; one can only be born one. Hinduism has no single organization. It has gained limited distribution outside India. Certain of its currents and ideas have spread in the countries of the Western world and in Russia (3 religious associations).

The most general model of the worship of gods in Hinduism is connected with the concept of the «Trimurti», according to which the three supreme deities of the pantheon are regarded as the principal manifestations of the Absolute (Brahman): as the manifestation in the world of the creative (Brahma), destructive (Shiva), and preserving (Vishnu) principles. At present Hindus are divided into two main groups – Vaishnavites and Shaivites.

Islam – one of the three world religions (after Christianity and Buddhism). In historical terms it is one of the youngest religions, since its appearance dates to the early Middle Ages.

At the moment of its emergence Islam was a syncretic religion that absorbed elements of a number of religions of the Arabian Peninsula. The main influence on early Islam was exerted by pre-Islamic ancient beliefs and cults, Hanifism, Judaism, Christianity, and Mazdaism.

The founder of Islam is considered to be the prophet Muhammad, a historically attested figure. In 610 Muhammad came forward publicly in Mecca as a prophet. This year may be considered the year of the emergence of Islam. Although neither his first nor his subsequent sermons in Mecca brought him success, Muhammad managed to gather a certain number of adherents to the new religion. The sermons of that period concerned mainly not real life but the soul, and therefore could not arouse great interest among the population. On the part of the ruling circles a hostile attitude developed both toward the preaching and toward Muhammad himself. After the death of his wealthy wife, Muhammad's position in Mecca became precarious, and in 622 he was forced to move to Medina. The choice of a new base proved fortunate, since Medina was a rival of Mecca in many respects, above all in trade. Military clashes between the populations of these regions occurred frequently. The real interests of the people determined the ideological atmosphere in which the preaching of the new religion found support. The sermons of that period (the Medinan surahs) are marked by confidence and categorical assertion.

The tribes of Aws and Khazraj, who inhabited Medina, converted to Islam and became the main group of Muhammad's adherents. By the end of Muhammad's life an Islamic theocratic state had formed, encompassing the entire Arabian Peninsula. After Muhammad's death in 632, Islam developed under considerable influence from Christianity and Judaism.

Soon after Muhammad's death, a political party of Shiites arose within Islam, who recognized his son-in-law Ali as the legitimate successor of Muhammad and rejected the Umayyad dynasty. Gradually the Shiites developed into a religious movement and broke away from the main current of Islam. The adherents of orthodox Islam came to be called Sunnis. Simultaneously with the appearance of the Shiites, the whole of Arabia was engulfed by uprisings and acts of «apostasy». The most powerful of these movements was that of Yamama, under the leadership of Musaylima (Maslama). In the course of the fierce and bloody wars waged by the «sword of Islam», Khalid ibn al-Walid, all centers of rebellion were destroyed, after which the followers of Musaylima and Musaylima himself were exterminated. The anti-Islamic movement in Yemen was also suppressed. In the 630s the caliphate inflicted crushing defeats on its main opponents – Byzantium and Iran. In 639 a campaign against Egypt began, ending in its complete conquest.

After the murder of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, the caliph Ali, the throne of the caliphate was taken by the Umayyad dynasty. In the very first year of the dynasty's rule the capital of the caliphate was moved to Damascus, and Mecca and Medina ceased to be political centers of the state.

As a result of further Arab conquests Islam spread across the Middle and Near East, and later – to certain countries of the Far East, Southeast Asia, and Africa. In 711 a crossing of the Strait of Gibraltar was carried out, and within three years the Iberian Peninsula was in the hands of the Arabs. However, in their further advance northward they suffered defeat at Poitiers in 732 and were halted.

In the eighth and ninth centuries a mystical movement – Sufism – arose within Islam.

At the beginning of the ninth century the Arabs invaded Sicily and held it until they were expelled by the Normans at the end of the eleventh century.

At the beginning of the tenth century political power became concentrated in the hands of the army, consisting mainly of mercenaries. The commander-in-chief of the army received the post of «amir al-umara» (emir of emirs) and became in fact the head of all affairs of state, leaving the caliph only religious authority. At the same time, the deteriorating financial situation allowed many emirs to gain greater independence. As a result, by the beginning of the tenth century North Africa, Spain, and the eastern territories from Iran to India had broken away from the caliphate.

The main source for the study and description of Islam is the Quran – a historical document compiled by Muhammad's closest followers after his death, from his sayings. Although according to tradition Muhammad's sayings were recorded during his lifetime by special scribes on palm leaves, there is reason to believe that the Quran includes sayings with which Muhammad had nothing to do.

The basic dogmas of Islam are the worship of the one omnipotent God, Allah, and the veneration of Muhammad as the prophet of Allah. The Quran places Jesus Christ at a very high rank among the prophets, but his divine nature is denied.

The religious literature of Islam, created in subsequent periods, is divided into the Sira – biographical literature devoted to Muhammad, and the hadiths – traditions describing real or fictitious episodes of Muhammad's life. In the ninth century six collections of hadiths were selected to form the Sunna – the Sacred Tradition of Islam.

Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam holds the position of the predetermination of everything that happens by the will of God. Islam acknowledges the coming end of the world and the Last Judgment. Unlike Christianity, these events are not connected with the appearance of a messiah.

Alongside Allah, the Quran mentions an evil god opposed to him, called either Shaytan or Iblis.

Muslims acknowledge the immortality of the soul and the afterlife. Detailed pictures of hell and paradise are elaborated in Islam. These places are intended not only for the resurrected who have undergone the Last Judgment, but also for the dead who have undergone a kind of intermediate judgment and are awaiting the final reckoning after the resurrection. Hell, in the Muslim conception, is located beneath seven earths. Hell itself likewise consists of seven levels. The more a sinner has transgressed, the deeper the level to which he is confined. The assortment of infernal torments consists of the entire range accessible to the imagination. Paradise is seven levels of gardens, separated from one another by hundreds of steps, the distance between which amounts to a fifty years' journey on foot. The chief delight of the righteous is the houris and eternally youthful boys who serve everyone with inconceivably delicious food and drink.

The rite of circumcision apparently entered early Islam from Jewish communities. At present this rite is considered an obligatory condition for every Muslim.

Every Muslim is permitted to have four lawful wives at the same time. For a divorce it is sufficient for a Muslim man to pronounce the phrase «You are divorced» three times. Despite the apparent simplicity of such relations, the Quran forbids adultery.

In everyday practice Islam has certain restrictions on food and drink. As a rule these concern products little popular among Arabs, for example, pork. The question of the prohibition of alcohol is fairly indefinite – on the whole there is no direct prohibition of alcohol in the Quran. Islam borrowed from Judaism the prohibition against depicting living beings.

In the tenth century a system of theoretical Islamic theology – kalam – was created.

In almost all countries with a predominantly Muslim population, Islam is the state religion. The main body of believers is concentrated in Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, Nigeria, Turkey, Egypt, and Iran. The total number of followers of Islam at the end of the twentieth century is 900 million people.

Enthronement – in the Orthodox autocephalous churches, the solemn installation upon the throne of the head of the church – the patriarch – newly elected at a Local Council (in certain cases at a Council of Bishops).

Islamic state – in the modern world the term Islamic state is understood to mean states with a predominantly Muslim population, as well as states that have proclaimed Islam the basis of state legislation and their Constitution. Many Islamic ideologues believe that Islam has no concept of the separation of secular and spiritual functions, and everywhere promotes the preservation of the inseparability of spiritual and secular power, of religion and the state. The lengthy persistence of Islam as the basis of the legislation of Muslim states is explained by the fact that for more than a thousand years secular and religious power were concentrated here in the same hands: the head of state (caliph, sultan, or emir) simultaneously held the title of Commander of the Faithful. Muslim theologians consider that Islam and its spiritual leaders have a thousand years' experience in governing the state, the economy, and politics, and that this religion is capable of serving to create a just modern social order.

Judaism – one of the most ancient religions. The rudiments of Judaism appeared in the second century BC among the Jews living in the territory of Palestine. Having arisen in polytheistic form, Judaism in the first century BC gradually transformed into a monotheistic religion.

Judaism is based on the dogmas of: the recognition of the one God, Yahweh; the chosenness of the Jewish people by God; belief in a messiah who is to judge all the living and the dead and to lead the worshippers of Yahweh into the promised land; and the sanctity of the Old Testament (the Tanakh) and the Talmud.

According to general Christian conceptions, the Jews of the pre-Christian period were convinced of their own chosenness and of the exclusiveness of their own salvation. Other peoples were to enter the messianic kingdom exclusively as the vanquished and as slaves. Such God-defying pride is considered to be the reason for the rejection of the Jewish people and their defeat in 70–135 AD.

According to Christian and Jewish mythology, divine revelation was communicated to the Jewish people. After the so-called Babylonian Captivity the study by the entire Jewish people of the revelation that had been communicated to them began, which took more than ten centuries, up to the completion of the Talmuds – the Jerusalem and the Babylonian – in the fourth and sixth centuries AD respectively.

Originally Judaism was confined to a rather meager territory and scarcely extended beyond the small country of Palestine. The tenet preached by Judaism regarding the religious exclusiveness of the Jews did not favor the development of proselytizing activity. As a consequence, Judaism, apart from insignificant exceptions, was always the religion of a single people, the Jews. However, the peculiar nature of the historical fate of the Jewish people led to the dispersion of the adherents of the Jewish religion across all countries of the world.

One of the earliest literary works of Judaism is the Torah, which fixed the basic dogmas and commandments of Judaism. The Torah was promulgated in the fifth century BC in Jerusalem.

One of the sects of Judaism is Karaism. The adherents of this sect constitute a separate small ethno-confessional group.

Catacomb Church – a collective name for that part of the Orthodox clergy and Orthodox communities which in the 1920s withdrew from the jurisdiction of the Moscow Patriarchate, accusing it of collaboration with the Soviet authorities, and took up an illegal position. The Catacomb Church includes the «True Orthodox Church», the «True Orthodox Christians», and the Ioannites.

Catholicism (Western confession, Roman Catholic confession) (Greek katholikos – universal) – one of the main branches of Christianity, alongside Protestantism and Orthodoxy. Catholicism finally took shape as a doctrine after the division of the churches in 1054.

Catholicism has a number of distinctive features in its doctrine, cult, and organizational structure, brought about by Western European feudalism. The Catholic Church is strictly centralized, has a single center in the state of Vatican City, a single head – the Pope, and a strict church hierarchy and discipline.

As the source of doctrine, Catholics recognize (unlike Protestants) not only Holy Scripture but also Holy Tradition, which in Catholicism (unlike in Orthodoxy) includes the decrees of the ecumenical councils of the Catholic Church and the pronouncements of popes.

The clergy in Catholicism take a vow of celibacy. Another distinctive feature of Catholicism is the veneration of the Mother of God, the recognition of the dogmas of her Immaculate Conception and bodily Assumption, the addition of the filioque to the Creed, and the dogma of purgatory.

Catholicism is characterized by an elaborate cult, the widespread veneration of relics, and the cult of martyrs, saints, and the blessed.

For many centuries, worship in Catholicism was conducted only in Latin. Only the Second Vatican Council (1962 – 1965) permitted services in national languages as well.

The official philosophical doctrine of Catholicism is the teaching of Thomas Aquinas, adapted by the papacy to modern conditions in the form of neo-Thomism. Within Catholicism there is a constant struggle between proponents of renewal (modernists) and its opponents (traditionalists). Various left-wing movements advocating for human rights are playing an ever greater role.

Catholicism is the dominant confession in Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Belgium, Austria, and in all the Latin American countries. Catholics predominate among the believing population in Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Cuba, Lithuania, and the western regions of Belarus and Ukraine.

Kalym (Turkic – remainder, ransom) – a payment for the bride, in money and property, made upon a Muslim's marriage. This custom still exists among the Muslims of Central Asia and Transcaucasia.

Canon – 1) the rules of the Christian faith and life, the decrees of the Ecumenical as well as Local councils and of individual authoritative persons; 2) a norm regulating monastic life; 3) the catalogue of books of Holy Scripture and liturgical books accepted by the Church; 4) one of the forms of Orthodox iconographic composition that took shape by the
8th century; 5) norms regulating the artistic embodiment of icon images, in particular those set out in the so-called icon-painting originals (podlinniki).

Canonization – in the Christian churches (with the exception of the Protestant ones), the enrollment, according to certain rules and procedure, of particular persons into the ranks of the saints.

Karma – one of the central concepts of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and certain other Eastern religions. It goes back to the Vedic period, but, like the concept of samsara, is associated with the religious philosophy of Brahmanism.

In the broad sense, karma is the total sum of the deeds performed by any living being and their consequences, which determine the character of its new birth and existence.

In the narrow sense, karma is the influence of actions performed on the character of one's current and subsequent existence.

In both cases, karma acts as an invisible force. Only the general principle of its action is clear, while its inner mechanism always remains hidden. Karma determines not only the favorable or unfavorable conditions of future existence, but also progress or regression toward the person's main goal – liberation from the bonds of being and escape from the cycle of endless rebirths. In most cases karma appears as a mode of interaction between everyday human existence and the single space of mind. Often karma, together with the concept of samsara, represents an attempt to replace the idea of divine predetermination of the moral order with the idea of a natural cosmic moral world order.

Unlike the impersonal moral law of dharma, the law of karma emphasizes the role of the moral activity of the human personality. It is precisely a person's ability to independently influence his own karma that distinguishes the concept of karma from the ancient concept of fate.

In modern times the concept of karma is often interpreted in idiosyncratic ways and used speculatively by various sects and new religions.

Catechization – the process of instruction in the fundamentals of the faith, the task of which is a popular and accessible explanation of the basic truths of the Christian faith in a simple and clear form, usually in the form of questions and answers. Catechization is, as a rule, based on the Creed, the Ten Commandments, and the principal Christian prayers.

Clericalism – a socio-political movement seeking to strengthen the position and role of the church and the clergy in the political, social, spiritual, and cultural life of society. It found its most absolute expression in theocracy – a form of government in which the head of state (usually a monarchical one) is at the same time its religious head, and many state functions are concentrated in the hands of clergy or are under their control. Catholic, Protestant, Islamic, and Judaic clericalism are especially active.

Confession (Lat. – acknowledgment, profession) – a faith or creed; the term is also used to designate a particular direction (or directions) within a given religion, for example, within Christianity.

Lavra (Greek, lit. – quarter, city street) – a cenobitic monastery distinguished by its many buildings, large brotherhood, and renown. In Russia today one lavra is active – the Trinity-St. Sergius Lavra (in Sergiyev Posad, Moscow Region), and the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (St. Petersburg) is being prepared for revival. In Ukraine, the most ancient lavra of the Russian Orthodox Church – the Kiev Pechersk Lavra – is active, as is the Pochaev Lavra. All the lavras listed have always been and remain male monasteries.

Lamaism – a European name for a number of Buddhist religious forms that arose from the symbiosis of Vajrayana with local pre-Buddhist beliefs, chiefly shamanism and the cult of nature and ancestors: Tibetan Buddhism, Mongolian Buddhism, Buryat Buddhism, Kalmyk Buddhism, and Tuvan Buddhism. The term appeared in European scholarship in the first half of the 19th century, from where it passed into Russian, Chinese, and Japanese scholarship. In the second half of the 20th century the term fell out of use in European scholarship.

Lutheranism. In October 1517, Martin Luther (1483 – 1546), a professor at the University of Wittenberg, in his 95 Theses against indulgences, criticized the Catholic system of the remission of sins and its dogmatic foundations. This action caused a wide resonance and effectively marked the beginning of the Reformation. An important role in this was played by the new Christian doctrine put forward by Luther. According to Catholic views, the salvation of the soul is impossible without the mediation of the church between man and God. From this follows the special status of the clergy and the significance of human deeds and merits before God, among which the performance of all church rites was included. Luther proclaimed the main principle of the new doctrine to be salvation by faith, which is granted to a person not by merit but by the grace of God. Asserting a purely personal relationship between man and God, Luther rejected the existence of the entire hierarchy of the Catholic Church. Having reconsidered the teaching on the seven sacraments, Luther recognized only three of them as consistent with Scripture – baptism, communion, and confession.

Luther's position did not touch the existing social and political structures. Such a position met the interests of the moderate wing of the Reformation, above all the middle class (the burghers). The views of the plebeian masses and the peasantry were expressed by Thomas Müntzer.

By the end of the 1520s, Lutheran doctrine had become established in a number of German principalities and cities, especially in Central and Northern Germany. Emperor Charles V's attempt in 1529 to impose the restoration of the Catholic order led to even greater consolidation of the supporters of the reformed church. It was then that the concept of "Protestantism" arose. In 1555, as a result of the victory won by the German Protestants in the war against the emperor, they succeeded, through the Peace of Augsburg, in obtaining official recognition of their rights on the basis of the principle "whose realm, his religion" (cuius regio, eius religio).

Lutheranism retained from Catholicism and recognizes as true only that which does not contradict Holy Scripture: church organization, the episcopate, the Liturgy with a sacramental understanding of the Eucharist, the cross, candles, organ music, and so on. In practice it has only two sacraments: baptism and communion (although Luther's Catechism also allows confession). The church is understood only as an invisible community of those justified and reborn by personal faith.

Lutheranism clearly distinguishes the spiritual life of a Christian from its external order, and entirely rejects the cult of saints, icons, relics, and the veneration of relics, as well as pilgrimage to holy places.

Freemasonry – a religious-ethical movement. It arose at the beginning of the 18th century in Great Britain, then spread to all the countries of Europe. It saw its greatest development in the 18th – 19th centuries. Its structure and traditions were borrowed by the Freemasons partly from medieval guild organizations of stonemasons, and partly from medieval knightly orders.

Freemasons seek to create a secret worldwide organization with the aim of the peaceful unification of humanity in a single religious union. Venerating God as the Great Architect of the Universe, Freemasons allow the profession of any religion.

Madrasa (Arab. – place of teaching) – a religious educational institution for the training of Muslim clergy. Several dozen madrasas operate in Russia.

Minaret – a tower attached to a mosque, from which the muezzin calls the faithful to prayer. A mosque may have several minarets.

Monotheism (Greek, one, single god) – the religious concept and doctrine of a single God, belief in one God. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are considered monotheistic.

Mormons – a Protestant church founded in 1830 by Joseph Smith, a rural resident of the state of New York. Mormon doctrine is based on conservative Protestantism and the revelations of Joseph Smith. The main source of doctrine is the Bible and the Book of Mormon.

The Mormon articles of faith contain 13 statements affirming loyalty to the tenets of the Christian teaching on the Trinity, atonement, punishment, and salvation.

By analogy with the early apostolic church, the Mormons have established the offices of apostles, prophets, pastors, teachers, and evangelists. The governance of church life is entrusted to the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles and the president of the church.

The central theological theme of Mormon teaching is the gathering of the tribes of Israel and the restoration of the true Christian church.

The community led by Smith was forced to move frequently because of religious persecution. After Smith's murder in 1844, the new leader of the church, Brigham Young, led the Mormons to the Wild West. In 1847, in the area of the Great Salt Lake, in the lands inhabited by the Ute Indian tribe, the Mormons founded the city of Salt Lake City, which became the center of the Mormon colony. In the following years the Mormon settlements expanded considerably owing to immigration and a high natural growth rate. In 1850 the Mormon possessions in the Great Basin received the status of the "Territory of Utah," and in 1896 that of the State of Utah.

Mujtahid (Arab.) – the most authoritative Muslim jurist (faqih), possessing the right to render an independent judgment (ijtihad) on religious and legal matters.

Muftis (Arab. – one who expresses an opinion) – the highest spiritual figure among Sunni Muslims, who issues rulings (fatwas) on various matters of the application of sharia. In Russia, muftis head the Spiritual Administrations of Muslims.

Muezzin (Arab. – one who invites) – a mosque official who calls Muslims to prayer.

Vicegerent of a monastery – the head of a monastery, appointed by the patriarch or the ruling bishop, under whose direct authority the monastery is placed. Since he cannot constantly be present at the monastery to exercise day-to-day leadership, he appoints a vicegerent of the monastery for this purpose.

Patriarch (Greek – forefather, progenitor) – the highest ecclesiastical rank in Orthodoxy, the head of a number of local Orthodox churches.

In the Russian Orthodox Church, with the establishment of the patriarchate in 1589, its head began to bear the title of patriarch.

Presbyter (Greek – elder, senior) – the most ancient canonical name for the second degree of the sacrament of holy orders – a clergyman of the second degree (after the bishop) of the Christian church hierarchy. The same as "priest," "hiereus."

In Protestantism, a presbyter is the head of a congregation (local church) or of a regional union of local churches, elected, like the pastor, for a fixed term from among the laity.

Parish – the lowest (basic) church-administrative unit in the Orthodox and certain other Christian churches; a community of believers (consisting of clergy and laity) united around a church.

A parish is part of a diocese, is under the administration of the diocesan bishop and directly of the rector-priest in charge. A parish community is formed by the voluntary agreement of no fewer than 10 believers and is registered with the judicial authorities in the manner established by law.

Prophet – a person who speaks on behalf of God.

Protestantism – one of the three main branches of Christianity, alongside Catholicism and Orthodoxy.

Protestantism represents a body of numerous and independent churches and sects, linked only by their common origin.

The emergence of Protestantism is connected with the Reformation – a powerful anti-Catholic movement in 16th-century Europe. In 1526 the Diet of Speyer, at the demand of the German Lutheran princes, adopted a resolution granting everyone the right to choose a religion for themselves and their subjects. The Second Diet of Speyer in 1529 revoked this resolution. In response, five princes and a number of imperial cities issued a protest, from which the term "Protestantism" derives.

Protestantism shares the general Christian conceptions of the existence of God, His Trinity, the immortality of the soul, hell and heaven, while rejecting, however, the Catholic notion of purgatory. At the same time, Protestantism put forward three new principles: salvation by personal faith, the priesthood of all believers, and the exclusive authority of Holy Scripture.

Protestantism categorically rejects Holy Tradition as unreliable and concentrates all doctrine in Holy Scripture, which is regarded as the world's only holy book. Protestantism prescribes the daily reading of the Bible to believers.

In Protestantism the principled distinction between priest and layperson is removed, and the church hierarchy is abolished. The minister of the cult is deprived of the right to hear confession and grant absolution; he is accountable to the Protestant congregation.

In Protestantism many sacraments have been abolished (with the exception of baptism and communion), and celibacy is absent. Prayer for the dead, the veneration of saints and feasts in honor of saints, and the veneration of relics and icons are rejected. Prayer houses are free of altars, icons, statues, and bells. Monasteries and monasticism are absent.

Worship in Protestantism is maximally simplified and reduced to preaching, prayer, and the singing of psalms and hymns in the native language. The Bible is recognized as the sole source of doctrine, while Holy Tradition is rejected.

The formation of most currents of Protestantism took place under the idea of religious revival in the form of revivalism.

Protestantism is divided into an early period, including Anabaptism, Anglicanism, Calvinism, Lutheranism, Mennonitism, Socinianism, Unitarianism, and Zwinglianism, and a later period, including Adventism, the Salvation Army, Baptism, Quakerism, Methodism, Mormonism, Pentecostalism, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Christian Science.

At present Protestantism is most widespread in the Scandinavian countries, the USA, Canada, Germany, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. The modern Protestant churches founded the World Council of Churches in 1948.

Religion. Etymologically the term goes back to the Latin verb religare (to bind). Religion as a phenomenon includes a number of components:

doctrine: beliefs constituting a system of dogmas originating from the mythology of the given religion;

a god (or gods) as a supreme being endowed with the highest reason;

a cult as a body of ritual and/or magical actions performed in accordance with the canonical prescriptions of the given religion;

a church as a social institution uniting the adherents of the given religion;

norms of morality that have received sanctification in the system of dogmas of the given religion.

In the opinion of most researchers, it is precisely doctrine, i.e., the beliefs and conceptions constituting a system of dogmas, that is the principal, necessary, and sufficient feature defining the concept of religion.

Cultic practice, even within a single doctrine, can vary within a very wide range depending on geography, ethnography, state structure, linguistic differences, and other subjective elements. Cultic practice determines only the ways in which doctrine is reflected in a particular ethno-confessional community and in no way can serve as a description of the doctrine.

Church organization is also connected with doctrine only in the direction "doctrine to church." Churches belonging to one and the same doctrine may have substantial differences even within a single country, and in different countries they almost always differ.

Norms of morality, although determined by the dogmatics of the given doctrine, are rather a compromise between the dogmas and local ethnographic peculiarities, and likewise cannot be a determining factor in characterizing a religion.

Practically all religions agree with one another on the following points:

human life is not limited to earthly life;

a person is given the possibility of choosing between different moral categories, and the possibility of doing good or evil is a consequence of this freedom;

a person is capable, under certain conditions, of influencing the higher being.

The question of God as a necessary feature of religion is considered disputable and is treated arbitrarily by various confessions and scholarly schools. In general philosophical terms, the disputability of this question is caused by the denial of the existence of God by certain currents of Eastern religions, in particular Buddhism.

The Reformed tradition – a group of Protestant Calvinist churches of continental European origin, predominantly French and Dutch. In France the adherents of the Reformed tradition were called Huguenots. The contradictions between the ideology of the Reformed and the Catholic Church led to prolonged religious wars.

The Reformed movement began in the 1520s in Switzerland with the activity of Ulrich Zwingli. In 1529, because of theological disagreements over communion, predestination, the church, and the sacraments, the Reformed church separated from the Lutheran church. In the 1530s and 1540s, John Calvin became head of the church in Geneva. The followers of Luther and of the closely related Zwingli and Melanchthon began to call themselves Lutherans, while the followers of Calvin called themselves Calvinists or Reformed. Gradually the Reformed spread throughout Europe. The form of the Reformed tradition that remained in Switzerland took the shape of Zwinglianism.

The Reformed introduced simple worship, an extremely simplified church decoration, reduced the church hierarchy to a minimum, abolished the celibacy of priests, introduced democratic church governance, proclaimed the absolute authority of Holy Scripture, and abolished the institution of monasticism.

By the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, the Reformed church achieved official recognition.

In the 20th century many Reformed churches evolved toward more moderate positions, drawing closer to or uniting with Lutheran, Evangelical, and other Protestant churches. At present, Reformed churches exist in practically all the countries of Europe, as well as in the USA, South Africa, some countries of Latin America, and Asia.

The Reformed are united in the World Alliance of Reformed Churches. A printed organ is published: the journal "Reformed and Presbyterian World."

The Russian Orthodox Church (ROC) – is part of the Churches of Ecumenical Orthodoxy. It was founded in 988 under St. Prince Vladimir I as a metropolitanate of the Church of Constantinople, with its center in Kiev.

After the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the seat of the metropolitanate was moved to Vladimir in 1299, and to Moscow in 1325. From 1448 it was autocephalous (the first independent metropolitan was St. Jonah). After the fall of Byzantium (1553) it has to this day laid claim to the title of the "Third Rome." In 1589 Boris Godunov established the patriarchate. The first patriarch was St. Job, who finally subordinated the church to the aims of secular power.

From 1667 it was significantly weakened by the Old Believer schism, and then by the reforms of Peter the Great: the patriarchate was abolished, and the so-called Most Holy Synod, appointed by the emperor, was established. Councils were not permitted to be convened.

After the October coup of 1917, the Local Council of 1917-18 was convened, which restored to the Church its canonical head (St. Patriarch Tikhon). At the same time the Church suffered severe persecution from the Soviet authorities and underwent a number of schisms (the largest of which, the "Karlovtsy" schism, exists to this day).

A part of the clergy accepted Soviet power and in 1921-1922 began the "Renovationist" movement. Priests who did not accept this movement, and who had not managed or had not wished to emigrate, went underground and formed the so-called "catacomb church." In 1923 a local council of Renovationist communities considered programs for the radical renewal of the ROC. At the council Patriarch Tikhon was deposed and full support for Soviet power was proclaimed. Patriarch Tikhon anathematized the Renovationists.

In 1924 the Supreme Church Council was transformed into the Renovationist Synod headed by a metropolitan.

A portion of the clergy and believers who found themselves in emigration formed the so-called "Russian Orthodox Church Abroad." Until 1928 the ROCA maintained close contacts with the ROC, but subsequently these contacts were severed.

In the 1930s the church was on the verge of extinction. Only from 1943 did its slow revival as a Patriarchate begin.

At the Local Council of 1971, reconciliation with the Old Believers took place.

Sacralization – a term denoting the broad involvement of various social institutions, relations, and forms of social and individual consciousness within the sphere of religious influence and sanction.

Jehovah's Witnesses (Jehovists) – one of the later currents within Protestantism, founded by Charles Russell.

It originated as a Bible study circle founded in 1870 in the city of Allegheny (now part of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), which was later renamed the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.

By 1909 the work had taken on an international character, and the Society's headquarters was moved to Brooklyn (New York State), where it remains to this day.

In 1912 the society began work on the "Photo-Drama of Creation." With the aid of slides and sound films, the period from the creation of the earth to the end of the Millennial Kingdom of Christ was portrayed. Showings began in 1914, and 35,000 people watched the Photo-Drama daily. The "Drama" was an innovation in the field of sound film.

After Russell's death in 1916, his successor was Joseph F. Rutherford.

In 1931 the society was renamed the organization of Jehovah's Witnesses. The name is based on a statement in the Book of Isaiah 43:10-12.

By 1933 the Society was using 403 radio stations to broadcast talks on Biblical subjects. Later, instead of radio talks, house-to-house visits became the primary means of outreach. In doing so, the Witnesses played phonograph records with Bible talks. Whoever showed interest was offered a home Bible study.

In the 1930s and 1940s many Witnesses were arrested for their activity. In order to preserve freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, and of religious worship, the adherents of the teaching pursued legal cases. In the United States, as a result of appealing the decisions of lower courts, the Witnesses won 43 cases before the U.S. courts. Similarly favorable court decisions were handed down by the supreme courts of other countries. Regarding such won cases, Professor C. S. Braden wrote in his book These Also Believe about Jehovah's Witnesses: "By their fight to preserve their civil rights they have rendered a distinct service to democracy, for they have thereby contributed in no small degree to securing the rights of all minorities in America."

President J. F. Rutherford died in 1942, and his successor was N. H. Knorr. A coordinated educational program was begun. In 1943 a special school for training missionaries was founded – the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead. Since then, graduates of this school have been sent to more than 140 countries of the world. As a result, congregations appeared in countries where there had previously been none, and at present about 100 branches have been established in various countries. From time to time special courses are held to train congregation elders, volunteer branch workers, and those who participate full-time (as pioneers) in the preaching work.

N. H. Knorr died in 1977. One of the last organizational changes in which he took part before his death was the expansion of the Governing Body, located at the worldwide headquarters in Brooklyn. In 1976 administrative responsibility was divided and entrusted to various committees, which include members of the Governing Body. Each of its 11 members (as of 1993) has already spent more than 50 years participating in full-time preaching activity.

Jehovah's Witnesses deny the dogma of the Trinity, but recognize all three persons of the Trinity. God Jehovah is regarded as the source of all life. Jesus Christ is regarded as the only-begotten son of the supreme God; he alone was created directly by Jehovah, and everything else was created through Christ. Christ is not an almighty god and is not equal to Jehovah; on earth he would be not a god but an almighty man. The holy spirit is "God's invisible active force," which participated in the creation of the world and by means of which Jehovah carries out His will and can influence the consciousness of people.

Jehovah's Witnesses believe in angels subject to Christ, and in demons headed by Satan. The existence of hell is denied, but the doctrine of Armageddon – a global war in which Christ, with an army of angels, will destroy all unbelievers – is developed in great detail.

The leaders of the organization and religious authorities constitute the so-called "little flock" of Jehovah, who govern a multitude of other "sheep." According to the beliefs of the Jehovists, the members of the "little flock," at the moment of death, immediately rise again and enter the heavenly part of the kingdom of God, where they join the government of Christ, whose second coming has already occurred invisibly. The other "sheep" are promised eternal life in an earthly paradise after Armageddon. Those who died without becoming Jehovists will also be resurrected, but they will have to undergo a trial.

At the top of the hierarchical pyramid stands the Governing Body, consisting of 15 people. It was created in the 1960s and declared the "visible mediator of the Lord on Earth."

The Jehovists have only one holiday – the memorial of Christ's death. At this observance the faithful gather after sunset, and unleavened bread and dry red wine must be on the table. Only those who consider themselves anointed by the spirit of God may partake of these symbols.

The Jehovists have created a number of corporations, the main one of which is the "Watch Tower Society."

The center of the organization of Jehovah's Witnesses is located in Brooklyn (New York State).

The main publications are: "The Watchtower" (first published in July 1879) and "Awake!".

Secular state – a state that is worldview- or confession-neutral, that does not, as a matter of principle, adopt any worldview system or religion as its official ideology, and that grants its citizens freedom to make their own worldview choice. The Russian Federation is a secular state.

Freedom of religion – an inalienable element of freedom of conscience, the right of a person to choose and profess any religion. The granting by the state of equal rights to the confessions existing within it and the imposition on them of equal duties. The free establishment by believers of religious associations; the possibility for everyone, regardless of affiliation to one or another religion, to enjoy all political and civil rights.

Freedom of conscience – a legal norm of a democratic secular state, meaning the freedom of every person to independently make his own worldview choice, to determine his own attitude toward religion, and to express, disseminate, and change his religious or atheistic convictions. This excludes any direct or indirect restriction of rights, or the establishment of any advantages for citizens, depending on their attitude toward religion.

Religious sect (Lat. – teaching, direction, school) – a confessional group, one of the types of religious association. It arises as an oppositional current in relation to previously established, dominant religious movements, often as a result of a split within them, as a result of protest against their doctrine, cult, or organizational structure. Sects are characterized by radicalism of doctrine and value system, the preaching of their own exceptionalism, a sense of being chosen, and a sharp opposition of themselves to the church from which they separated.

Secularization (Lat. – worldly, secular) – the process by which social relations and institutions, and various aspects and levels of the life activity of society and the individual, are freed from the influence of religion; the displacement of religion from various spheres of public life by secular forms of spiritual production and the organization of people's life activity. Historically its earliest forms were the alienation of church property in favor of the state, the narrowing of the church's functions in the sphere of state administration, the liberation of state-legal relations from religious sanction, the creation of a secular educational system independent of the church, and the development of secular culture, art, morality, and so on.

Sikhism (Sanskrit – sikh, disciple) – a religious teaching that arose in the Punjab (Northwestern India) as a protest by merchants and artisans against the caste system of Hinduism and the socio-political domination of India by the Muslim Mughal dynasty. The founder of the teaching was the teacher (guru) Nanak (1469-1539). The Sikhs preached the equality of people and created their own military-democratic society-state in the Punjab, which existed until 1849. The teaching of Sikhism recognizes a single God, the world as His creation, and people as equal before God. They renounced orthodox Hinduism and did not accept Islam, in effect creating a new religion. The foundations of the doctrine are set out in the book "Guru Granth Sahib" ("Lord Book").

Sunnism – the main branch of Islam. Sunnis consider the first three caliphs – Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman – the lawful successors of Muhammad and recognize the numerous traditions (sunnah) from Muhammad.

Sunnis are divided into four schools, based on different legal schools of sharia: Maliki, Hanbali, Hanafi, and Shafi'i. In addition, the Sensuists (Zahiris?) are distinguished separately.

Theocracy (Greek: God + power) – a form of government in which power in the state is held in the hands of the head of the church and the clergy. Theocratic states included the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, as well as the Papal States, where the pope exercised both political and spiritual power. The present-day Vatican is also a theocratic state.

Theology – the doctrine of God, a body of religious doctrines concerning the essence and activity of God, constructed in the forms of an idealist worldview on the basis of ideas or texts accepted as divine revelation.

One of the premises of theology is the concept of a personal God who communicates immutable knowledge about Himself through His word. Theology in the strict sense is possible only within the framework of theism or theistic tendencies.

The second premise of theology is the existence of developed forms of idealist philosophy. Although theology cannot dispense with philosophical concepts, it is, in essence, distinct both from philosophy and from religious philosophy. In theology, reason is assigned a subordinate, interpretive role; it only receives and explains the word of God. Theology is distinguished from philosophy and any other autonomous worldview by its complete authoritarianism.

The dogmatic content of theology is regarded as eternal and absolute, not subject to historical change.

There are two kinds of theology – the lower (natural theology), in the form of philosophical speculation on the absolute as the essence, first cause, and totality of all things, and the upper (revealed theology) – "truths of revelation" not comprehensible by reason. Protestant theology has sometimes abandoned the concept of natural theology; in the 20th century such tendencies were stimulated by the influence of existentialism and by the danger of conflict with the findings of scientific research.

Theosophy – 1) Mystical knowledge of God; less often used as a synonym for theology. In the general sense, theosophy, unlike theology (which relies on revelation and dogma), is a teaching about the divine proceeding from subjective mystical experience and seeking to set forth this experience in the form of a coherent system. The term is also commonly applied to a number of mystical teachings of the 16th-18th centuries lying outside the direct church-Christian tradition. 2) A syncretic religious-mystical teaching founded by the Russian writer H.P. Blavatsky.

The teaching took shape under the influence of the religious and philosophical conceptions of Brahmanism, Hinduism, and Buddhism, as well as occultism and elements of Gnosticism. Ignoring the historical forms of religion, theosophy attempted to unite various faiths by seeking the identity of the hidden meaning of all religious symbols, and to create on this basis a universal religion not bound to a particular dogmatics.

According to the founders of theosophy, the origin of the term "theosophy" goes back to the school of the Neoplatonists, while the early elements of theosophy took shape in ancient India. According to theosophy, the ultimate goal of a person is the attainment of occult knowledge and the acquisition of supernatural abilities. This goal is achieved through the existence of an esoteric tradition of a small number of initiates (masters).

In 1875, H.P. Blavatsky, together with H. Olcott, founded the Theosophical Society in New York, which put the ideas of the teaching into practice. The society's activity quickly spread to many countries of Europe and America. In 1879 the society's central headquarters was moved to India, and in 1882 – to a suburb of Madras. After Olcott's death in 1907, A. Besant became president of the society, and she proclaimed Krishnamurti the new savior of humanity. During this period a split occurred within the society, and anthroposophy separated from theosophy.

Religious fundamentalism (Lat. – foundation) – a tendency or established current in theology asserting the inviolability of the basic, original principles of a particular religion, insisting on their revival and unconditional observance, regardless of changing socio-historical circumstances. It is found to one degree or another among adherents of all religions with a centuries-long history. It is often used as a religious framing for radically conservative political aspirations, taking on a militant character.

Christianity – one of the three main world religions (alongside Buddhism and Islam). Christianity arose in Palestine in the 1st century AD against the background of the mystical-messianic movements of Judaism, as a religion of the oppressed who sought salvation from harsh conditions through the coming of a savior. A characteristic feature of the Mediterranean region at this time was the development and wide dissemination of Hellenism. The emergence of Christianity was also influenced by three philosophical schools – the Stoic, the Epicurean, and the Skeptic – all together oriented toward achieving happiness in personal life.

The Roman Empire at this time extended from the Euphrates to the Atlantic Ocean and from North Africa to the Rhine. After the death of Herod, dissatisfied with the strife among his sons, the Romans transferred the administration of Judea to an imperial procurator in the 6th year AD. Christianity initially spread within the Jewish milieu in Palestine and the countries of the Mediterranean basin, but already in its first decades of existence it gained a large number of followers from other peoples.

In the second half of the 1st century and the first half of the 2nd century, Christianity consisted of a number of communities made up of slaves, freedmen, and artisans. In the second half of the 2nd century, Christian writers already note the presence of noble and well-to-do people within the communities. One of the important elements in Christianity's transition to a fundamentally new level was its break with Judaism in the 2nd century. After this, the proportion of Jews within Christian communities steadily decreased. At the same time, Christians abandoned Old Testament laws: the observance of the Sabbath, circumcision, and strict dietary restrictions.

The expansion of Christianity and the involvement of large numbers of people of the most varied faiths in Christian communities meant that Christianity of this period was not a unified church but a huge number of currents, groupings, and theological schools. The situation was complicated by a large number of heresies, the number of which by the end of the 2nd century was put at 156 by the church historian of the late 4th century, Philaster.

In the second half of the 3rd century the process of further centralization of the church continued, and by the beginning of the 4th century several metropolitanates had emerged from the existing dioceses, each of which united a group of dioceses. Naturally, major church centers were established in the most important political centers of the empire, above all in the capitals.

At the beginning of the 4th century Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire. At this time the church organization was strengthened, and the official establishment of the church hierarchy took place, the highest and most privileged part of which became the episcopate.

Until the 5th century, the spread of Christianity took place mainly within the geographical boundaries of the Roman Empire, as well as within its sphere of influence – Armenia, Ethiopia, Syria. In the second half of the 1st century, Christianity spread among the Germanic and Slavic peoples, and later – in the 13th-14th centuries – among the Baltic peoples. By the 14th century Christianity had practically conquered the whole of Europe, and, beginning from this time, it began to spread beyond Europe, mainly through colonial expansion and the activity of missionaries.

The formation of the ideology of Christianity was influenced by Eastern cults, Jewish messianic sects, and Greek philosophy.

According to Christian dogma, God exists in three persons (the Trinity), or hypostases: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. For Christians the Trinity is the main object of faith and worship. The Fathers of the Church affirm the absolute unknowability of the essence of God to the human mind.

Christian mythology is based on the teaching of the God-man Jesus Christ, who came down from heaven to earth (having taken on human form) and accepted suffering and death for the purpose of atoning for the original sin of humanity. After death, Christ rose again and ascended into heaven.

In the future, according to Christian teaching, there will be a second coming of Christ to judge the living and the dead.

Christianity (to a lesser extent this applies to Protestantism) is characterized by the presence of strict commandments and rules established for its adherents. The followers of Christianity must fulfill the commandments of Christ and bear the hardships of life without complaint. Christians are promised recompense in the afterlife both for observing and for failing to observe all the rules. The basic law of Christianity is "to each according to his faith."

In early Christianity, the conceptions that appeared later of the Trinity, original sin, the incarnation of God, baptism, and communion were absent.

Christian dogmatics took shape over several centuries. The creed formed by the Ecumenical Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople was repeatedly supplemented and revised.

Throughout all periods of the formation of Christian ideology, fierce disputes were conducted over various questions of the understanding of dogma, both between individual Christian associations and between individual theologians.

In the course of the formation of Christianity, it split into three main branches: Catholicism, Orthodoxy, and Protestantism, in each of which the formation of its own ideology began, one that practically does not coincide with the other branches.

At present, complex and often contradictory processes are taking place within Christianity. On the one hand, social and political differentiation of various confessions is observed. On the other hand, serious ecumenical sentiments and movements have appeared within Christianity.

Khural – (Mong.) – a religious service in a monastery.

Khurde (Mong.) – a prayer wheel, a hollow cylinder into which prayer texts are placed. One turn of the khurde is equivalent to the recitation of all the prayers placed inside it. They are installed on the grounds of a monastery, next to the temple.

Church law – a body of norms established for the definition and regulation of church relations. It is divided into internal church law, which includes norms concerning the church as an institution (the ordering of spheres of activity, relations of subordination, and the measures and means for achieving church objectives), and external church law, which is subdivided into state-church law and inter-confessional law. Church law does not coincide with canon law. Canon law is understood to include all the law worked out by the church in the era of the ecumenical councils in the East and, until the end of the Middle Ages, in the West, regardless of whether it concerns ecclesiastical or civil matters. Church relations, both in the autocephalous churches of Eastern Orthodoxy and in the West, are only partly regulated by canon law, but are governed chiefly by norms of later origin, both ecclesiastical and state.

Church (Greek – house of God) – 1) a place of assembly for Christians for

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