Lecture
Avitaminoses - diseases that develop as a result of prolonged
qualitatively inadequate nutrition lacking the corresponding
vitamins.
Nitrogen balance - a state of the organism in which the amount of
nitrogen excreted equals the amount of nitrogen obtained from food. From the amount of
nitrogen taken in with food and excreted, mainly with urine, one can judge the
well-being or disturbances of protein metabolism.
Alimentary diseases - diseases caused by nutrition
that is inadequate to the needs of the organism.
Antinutritional dietary factors - substances of natural
origin that are not toxic but are capable of impairing or
blocking the absorption of nutrients.
Amylases - enzymes that catalyze reactions of starch breakdown.
Amino acids - organic acids containing amino groups, which
are part of proteins of animal and plant origin. Amino acids
are divided into non-essential and essential. Essential acids are not synthesized in
the organism and must necessarily be supplied with food in certain amounts.
Atherosclerosis - a disease associated with impaired supply of blood to organs and
tissues as a result of decreased elasticity of the blood vessels and narrowing
of their lumen due to the deposition of fatty
substances (cholesterol plaques) on the inner surface of the vessels.
Protein - a high-molecular-weight compound consisting of the residues of α-
amino acid molecules joined by peptide bonds.
Protein starvation - a health disorder usually associated with
a deficiency of protein in food. Children are especially sensitive to protein deficiency.
Vitamin-like substances - essential dietary biologically
active substances whose deficiency, unlike that of vitamins, does not lead to clearly
pronounced disorders.
Vitamins - essential organic substances of food that enter the
organism in very small amounts. Vitamins, as a rule, are not synthesized by
animal organisms and are either supplied with food or formed as a result of
the vital activity of microorganisms living within them.
pH (Hydrogen index) - a value characterizing the concentration
of hydrogen ions in a solution. In pure water and neutral solutions pH=7,
in acidic ones - pH < 7, in alkaline ones - pH > 7.
Hydrogen bond - a special type of chemical bond arising between
active hydrogen and a highly electronegative element.
Hexoses - simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides) with six carbon atoms in
the molecule. They occur in free form and are part of disaccharides and
polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates) - starch, sucrose, cellulose.
Hemoglobin - the main protein of erythrocytes, giving them their red color.
Hemoglobin contains iron, which easily combines with oxygen and performs
the role of carrier of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
Genetic modification (genetic engineering, gene technology) -
a process in which laboratory methods are used to introduce, alter, or excise
sections of DNA containing one or several genes.
Genetically modified food sources (GMS) - food products
(components) used by humans as food in natural or processed form,
obtained from genetically modified organisms.
Hydrogenated fats - solid fats obtained by saturating
the double bonds in the unsaturated fatty acids of vegetable oils with hydrogen.
Hydrogenated fats are part of margarines and spreads.
Hydrolases - enzymes that catalyze reactions of hydrolysis of complex
organic compounds into several simpler ones.
Hydrolysis - the chemical interaction of a substance with water, in which a complex
substance decomposes into two or more new substances.
Hydrophiles - moisture-loving microorganisms (mainly bacterial
microflora).
Hydrophilicity, hydrophobicity - a characteristic of the intensity of
the molecular interaction of the surface of bodies with water. It can be attributed to
molecules and individual groups of atoms. Hydrophilicity (good
wettability by water) is possessed by substances with polar groups.
Hydrophobicity (poor wettability) is possessed by most organic
compounds with long-chain hydrocarbon radicals.
Hypovitaminoses - diseases associated with an insufficient amount of
vitamins in the organism.
Hypervitaminoses - a state in which vitamins enter the organism
in an amount exceeding the physiological requirement.
Glycogen - animal starch; a carbohydrate from the group of polysaccharides. It is formed from
blood sugar in the liver and muscles and is deposited there as a reserve substance.
Glucose - grape sugar, a carbohydrate from the group of monosaccharides, a hexose;
it has a sweet taste; it is found in plant and animal organisms.
Hormones - biologically active substances. Fine regulators of metabolic
processes, formed in the endocrine glands.
Diabetes - a disease associated with insufficient use
by the organism of blood glucose, as a result of which acetone
bodies - products of incomplete oxidation of fats - accumulate in the blood.
Disaccharides - a group of carbohydrates whose molecules consist of two residues
of monosaccharides. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, maltose, cellobiose.
Intestinal dysbacteriosis - a change in the quantitative and qualitative
ratio of the intestinal microflora, characterized by a decrease in the content
or disappearance of lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria with
a simultaneous increase in the amount of atypical intestinal microorganisms
(including putrefactive and opportunistic ones).
Vital trace elements - trace elements in the absence
or deficiency of which the normal vital activity of the human organism
is disrupted.
Healthy nutrition - nutrition that ensures growth, normal development, and
the vital activity of a person, contributing to the strengthening of their health and
the prevention of diseases.
Health - a state of complete physical, mental, and social
well-being, and not merely the absence of diseases and physical defects.
Ideal protein - a protein having an amino acid composition optimal for satisfying
a person's needs.
Isomerases - enzymes that catalyze reactions of isomerization, i.e.
catalyzing the transfer of chemical groupings within a molecule.
Immunity - the resistance of the organism to diseases.
Insulin - a protein hormone secreted by the pancreas; a regulator
of carbohydrate metabolism in the organism, maintaining a normal level of glucose in
the blood.
Calorie - a unit of measurement of the energy entering the organism with food. As a
result of the oxidation of 1 g of carbohydrates, 4 kcal are released, 1 g of proteins - 4 kcal, 1 g of fats
- 9 kcal, 1 g of alcohol - 7 kcal of energy.
Carcinogenic compounds - substances that promote the occurrence of
malignant neoplasms.
Carbohydrases - enzymes that catalyze reactions of breakdown and
synthesis of the glycosidic bond.
Catalysts - substances that change the rate of a chemical reaction.
Starch - a homopolysaccharide consisting of the residues of α-glucose molecules,
joined by 1,4- and 1,6-glycosidic bonds.
Xenobiotics - foreign substances of chemical or organic
nature that contaminate food products.
Xerophiles - dryness-loving microorganisms (microscopic fungi).
Lactose - milk sugar. It promotes the development in the intestine of beneficial
microflora that suppresses the growth of pathogenic microbes. It is found in the milk of
mammals.
Lyases - enzymes that catalyze reactions of the non-hydrolytic
removal of atoms and groups of atoms from a substrate with the formation of a multiple bond or
the addition of groupings at the site of the rupture of multiple bonds.
Ligases (synthetases) - enzymes that catalyze reactions of synthesis.
Limiting amino acid - an essential amino acid whose score is
less than 100 %.
Lipases - enzymes that catalyze reactions of the breakdown of fats.
Lipids - high-molecular-weight compounds that are derivatives of
fatty acids and alcohols, built with the help of ester, ether,
glycosidic, amide, and other bonds.
Lipoids - a group of fat-like substances of natural origin
including phospholipids, steroids, etc.
Lipoproteins - complex proteins that include proteins, fats, or
fat-like substances.
Lipotropic action - the ability of a number of substances, in particular choline,
to reduce the accumulation of fat in the liver. This important property made it possible to assign
choline to the group of vitamins. Lipotropic action is possessed not only by choline but also by
the compounds from which it is formed in the organism, in particular the essential
amino acid methionine and a number of proteins.
Macronutrients - these are components of food, the daily requirement for which
is measured in tens and hundreds of grams; they include proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids.
Macroelements - chemical elements contained in food products,
the daily requirement of which is measured in no less than tens of milligrams.
Mesophiles - moderately moisture-loving microorganisms (various races
of yeast).
Membrane digestion - a type of digestion that is carried out with
the help of enzymes concentrated on the microvilli located along
the walls of the small intestine.
Micronutrients - these are components of food, the daily requirement for which
is measured in grams, milligrams, micrograms; they include vitamins,
mineral substances.
Trace elements - chemical substances contained in the organism of humans
and animals in low concentrations amounting to micrograms per 1 g of tissue
mass.
Minor food components - substances of various chemical
structure present in food products (flavonoids, organic
acids) in trace amounts, having a specific (protective,
regulatory) influence on the diverse functions of individual metabolic
systems and the organism as a whole.
Monosaccharides - simple carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, galactose, arabinose,
xylose, ribose).
Mutagenic effect - an effect leading to qualitative and
quantitative changes in the genetic apparatus of cells.
Saturated fatty acids - fatty acids not containing
unsaturated bonds. Fats containing many saturated fatty acids
(stearic, palmitic), for example, mutton tallow, have a solid consistency at ordinary
temperature.
Essential amino acids - these are α-amino acids that are synthesized
only by plants and are not synthesized in the human organism; they must
be delivered with food. They are an essential dietary factor.
Unsaturated fatty acids - fatty acids containing one or
several double bonds; they include oleic, linoleic, linolenic,
arachidonic acids, etc. Oils containing a large percentage of unsaturated
fatty acids have a liquid consistency at room temperature. Linoleic
and linolenic fatty acids, containing several double bonds each, are not
synthesized in the organism in sufficient amount and are among the essential
dietary factors.
Nucleoproteins - complex proteins consisting of simple proteins and
nucleic acids. In the organism they perform the role of regulators of protein synthesis and
carriers of hereditary properties.
Nutriciology - the science of nutrition.
Nutrients - food substances.
Oxidoreductases - enzymes that catalyze oxidation-
reduction reactions.
Oligases - enzymes that break the glycosidic bond in glycosides and
oligosaccharides.
Pectins - heteropolysaccharides, a constituent part of many fruits and
root vegetables; in the human organism they actively bind heavy metals,
radionuclides, improve intestinal peristalsis, and promote the accelerated
elimination of toxins from the organism.
Peptide bond - this is a bond formed between the carboxyl
groups and amino groups of amino acid molecules.
Peptides - a class of organic compounds consisting of two (dipeptides) and
more (oligopeptides, polypeptides) residues of α-amino acids. Many polypeptides
are formed during the incomplete hydrolysis of proteins.
First limiting amino acid - the limiting amino acid whose score
has the lowest value.
Pesticides - poisons of chemical and biological origin,
used in agriculture to protect cultivated plants from weeds
(herbicides), insects (insecticides), diseases (fungicides).
Nutrition - these are the successive processes of intake, digestion,
absorption, and assimilation of food substances in the organism.
Digestion - this is the totality of processes associated with the consumption and
assimilation in the organism of substances that are part of food.
Nutritional value of food products - the content in the products of proteins,
fats, carbohydrates. Unit of measurement - g/100 g of product
Food ration - the totality of food products consumed during
the course of a day (24 hours).
Dietary fiber - complex carbohydrates that are part of products
of plant origin, which are practically not absorbed in the intestine and
perform the role of natural sorbents, binding many toxic substances, as
well as cholesterol. They are a nutrient substance for the natural
microflora of the intestine and thereby contribute to the normalization of the composition
of the intestinal microorganisms.
Food products - objects of animal, plant origin,
used as food in natural or processed form as a
source of energy, nutritional and flavor-aromatic substances.
Polyases - enzymes that catalyze reactions of the hydrolysis of polysaccharides.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids - essential compounds,
performing an important role in metabolism. A deficiency of polyunsaturated
acids in food (linoleic, linolenic) disrupts cholesterol metabolism and contributes to
the development of atherosclerosis. A deficiency of these acids in food hinders the normal
development of the growing organism and affects the health of adults. A large
amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids is contained in vegetable fats.
Polysaccharides - a group of complex carbohydrates that break down upon hydrolysis into
several molecules of monosaccharides; they include starch, glycogen, cellulose,
inulin, mucilages, gums.
Proteases - enzymes that catalyze reactions of the breakdown and synthesis
of the peptide bond.
Cavitary digestion - a type of digestion that occurs in the food
cavities - oral, gastric, intestinal.
Dietary regimen - this is the observance of a certain time and number of intakes
of food, the rational distribution of food at each intake.
Reserve fats - fats that are deposited in the so-called fat
depots, where fatty tissue is concentrated; as necessary, reserve fats
are mobilized as sources of energy.
Balanced nutrition - this is nutrition in which the qualitative and
quantitative composition of the food ration fully corresponds to the needs of the
organism.
Free moisture - this is moisture not bound by a polymer and available for
the occurrence of biochemical, microbiological, chemical processes.
Bound moisture - this is associated water firmly bound to
the components of food - proteins, carbohydrates, lipids - by means of chemical and
physical bonds.
Sterols - fat-like hydrocarbons of polycyclic structure. The most
widespread sterols in the organism of animals are cholesterol and its
esters.
Teratogenic effect - an effect leading to anomalies in the development
of the fetus.
Transferases - enzymes that catalyze the transfer of atomic groupings from
one compound to another, i.e. intermolecular transfer.
Ultratrace elements - chemical elements contained in food products,
the daily requirement for which is less than 1 microgram per 1 g of body mass.
Digestibility of food - the degree of use by the organism of the nutrients contained in
food.
Conditionally necessary trace elements - trace elements the vital
necessity of which has not been unconditionally proven.
Enzyme preparation - a preparation that includes several
enzymes.
Enzymes - biological catalysts, complex organic substances
of a protein nature. Vitamins are part of many complex enzymes. Enzymes
play a most important role in metabolism, accelerating chemical reactions in living
organisms.
Phosphatides - fat-like substances that include a residue of
phosphoric acid. The most widespread phosphatide is lecithin, in the composition
of which there is choline.
Fructose - fruit sugar, a hexose, a carbohydrate from the group of monosaccharides;
it has a sweet taste; it is found in plant objects.
Cholesterol - a fat-like substance from the group of sterols, which is part of
the membranes and other parts of the cells and tissues of the organism.
Choline - a nitrogen-containing alcohol possessing so-called lipotropic
action, i.e. the ability to reduce the accumulation of fat in the liver. This property of
choline made it possible to assign it to the group of vitamins (vitamin B4).
Cellulose - a homopolysaccharide that is part of most plant
organisms; it is the basis of cell walls.
Cyanogenic glycosides - these are glycosides that release
hydrocyanic acid upon hydrolysis.
Endogenous water - water formed in the human organism during the oxidation
of macronutrients (proteins, fats, carbohydrates).
Energy value of a food product - this is the energy that is
released from food substances (proteins, fats, carbohydrates) in the process of
biological oxidation. Unit of measurement - kcal/g or kJ/g.
Essential substances - components of food not synthesized in
the human organism. Otherwise called indispensable.
Esterases - enzymes that catalyze reactions of the breakdown and synthesis
of the ester bond.
Comments