23. Human abilities and inclinations, concept, types, levels of development, V.D. Shadrikova

23.1. General characteristics of human abilities

Very often, when we try to explain why people who are in the same or almost the same conditions, achieve different successes, we turn to the notion of ability, believing that the difference in people's successes can be explained by just this. The same concept is used when investigating the reasons for the rapid assimilation of knowledge or the acquisition of skills by some people and the long, even painful learning of others. What is the ability?

It should be noted that the word "ability" has a very wide application in various areas of practice. Usually, under the abilities understand such individual characteristics, which are the conditions for the successful implementation of any one or more activities. However, the term “abilities”, despite its long-standing and widespread use in psychology, is interpreted ambiguously by many authors. If we sum up all sorts of variants of currently existing approaches to the study of abilities, then they can be reduced to three main types. In the first case, abilities are understood as a combination of all kinds of mental processes and states. This is the broadest and oldest interpretation of the term "ability." From the point of view of the second approach, by abilities understand a high level of development of general and specialized knowledge and skills that ensure successful implementation man of various activities. This definition appeared and was adopted in the psychology of the X \ TP-XIX century. and quite common in the present. The third approach is based on the statement that abilities are something that is not limited to knowledge, skills and abilities, but ensures their quick acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice.

In Russian psychology, experimental studies of abilities are most often based on the latter approach. The well-known Russian scientist B. M. Teplov made the greatest contribution to its development. He highlighted the following three main features of the concept of "ability."

First, abilities are understood as individual psychological features that distinguish one person from another; no one will talk about abilities where it is a question of properties for which all people are equal.

Secondly, not all individual features are called abilities, but only those that are related to the success of performing any activity or many activities.

Thirdly, the concept of “ability” is not limited to the knowledge, skills or abilities that have already been developed by this person.

Unfortunately, in everyday practice, the concepts of “ability” and “skills” are often identified, which leads to erroneous conclusions, especially in teaching practice. A classic example of this kind is the unsuccessful attempt of V. I. Surikov, who later became a famous artist, to enter the Academy of Arts. Although Surikov's outstanding abilities were manifested quite early, he did not yet have the necessary skills and skills in drawing. Academic teachers refused to enter Surikov Academy. Moreover, the inspector of the academy, after reviewing the drawings submitted by Surikov, declared: “For such drawings, you should not be allowed to walk past the academy”. The mistake of the teachers of the academy was that they could not distinguish the lack of skills and abilities from the lack of ability. Surikov proved by his business a mistake, having mastered the necessary skills for three months, as a result of which the same teachers found him worthy of admission to the academy this time. .

Despite the fact that abilities are not limited to knowledge, skills and abilities, this does not mean that they are not related to knowledge and skills. On the ability to depend on the ease and speed of acquisition of knowledge and skills. The acquisition of this knowledge and skills, in turn, contributes to the further development of abilities, while the lack of appropriate skills and knowledge is a brake on the development of abilities.

Abilities, considered B. M. Teplov, cannot exist except in a constant process of development. Ability that does not develop, which in practice a person ceases to use, over time, is lost. Only through constant exercises related to systematic studies of such complex types of human activity as music, technical and artistic creativity, mathematics, sports, etc., do we support and develop appropriate abilities in ourselves.

It should be noted that the success of any activity depends not on any one, but on a combination of different abilities, and this combination

A result that yields the same result can be achieved in various ways. In the absence of the necessary inclinations for the development of some Abilities, their deficit can be compensated for by the higher development of others. “One of the most important features of the human psyche,” wrote B. M. Tenlov, “is the possibility of extremely broad compensation of some properties by others, as a result of which the relative weakness of any one ability does not at all exclude the possibility of successfully performing even such activity, which is most closely connected with this ability. The lacking ability can be very widely compensated by other, highly developed in a given person ”*.

There are so many abilities. In science, known attempts to classify them. Most of these classifications primarily distinguish between natural, or natural, abilities (biologically based on their basis) and specifically human abilities, which have a socio-historical origin.

Natural abilities are those that are common to humans and animals, especially higher ones. For example, such elementary abilities are perception, memory, ability for elementary communication. Thinking from a certain point of view can also be regarded as an ability that is characteristic not only of humans, but also of higher animals. These abilities are directly related to innate instincts. However, the makings of a person and the makings of an animal are not the same thing. A person on the basis of these abilities are formed abilities. This happens in the presence of elementary life experience, through the mechanisms of learning, and so on. And. In the process of human development, these biological abilities contribute to the formation of a number of other, specifically human abilities.

These specifically human abilities can be divided into general and special higher intellectual abilities. In turn, they can be divided into theoretical and practical, educational and creative, subject and interpersonal, etc.

To common abilities are attributed those that determine the success of a person in a variety of activities. For example, this category includes mental abilities, subtlety and accuracy of hand movements, memory, speech and a number of others. Thus, by common abilities understand the abilities peculiar to most people. By special abilities are meant those that determine the success of a person in specific types of activity, for the implementation of which are necessary the makings of a special kind and their development. Such abilities include musical, mathematical, linguistic, technical, literary, artistic and creative, sports, etc. It should be noted that having a person’s general abilities does not preclude the development of special abilities, and vice versa.

Most researchers of the problem of ability converge on the fact that general and special abilities do not conflict, but coexist, mutually complementing and enriching each other. Moreover, in some cases, a high level of development of general abilities may act as special

* Psychology. / Ed. prof. K. N. Kornilov, prof. A. A. Smirnova, prof. B.M. Teplova. - Ed. 3rd, pererabot. and add. - M .: Uchpedgiz, 1948.

abilities in relation to certain types of activities. Such interaction by some authors is explained by the fact that common abilities, in their opinion, are the basis for the development of special ones. Other researchers, explaining the relationship of general and special abilities, emphasize that the division of abilities into general and special is very conditional. For example, almost every person after a course of study can add, multiply, divide, etc., so mathematical abilities can be considered as common. However, there are people who have these abilities developed so highly that we begin to talk about their mathematical talent, which can be expressed in the speed of mastering mathematical concepts and operations, the ability to solve extremely complex problems, etc.

With the general abilities of a person, we with good reason should include abilities that manifest themselves in communication and interaction with people. These abilities are socially determined. They are formed by a person in the process of his life in society. Without this group of abilities, it is very difficult for a person to live among his own kind. So, without owning speech as a means of communication, without the ability to adapt in a society of people, that is, to correctly perceive and evaluate people's actions, interact with them and establish good relationships in various social situations, a normal life and mental development of a person would be simply impossible. A person’s lack of such abilities would be an insurmountable obstacle to his transformation from a biological being into a social being.

In addition to the division of abilities into general and special, it is customary to divide abilities into theoretical and practical. Theoretical and practical abilities are different from each other in that the former predetermine the tendency of a person to abstract-theoretical reflections, and the latter to concrete practical actions. In contrast to general and special abilities, theoretical and practical are often not combined with each other. Most people have either one or a different type of ability. Together they are extremely rare, mostly among gifted, diversified people.

There is also a division into learning and creativity . They differ from each other in that the former determine the success of learning, the assimilation of knowledge and skills by a person, while the latter determine the possibility of discoveries and inventions, the creation of new objects of material and spiritual culture, etc. If we try to determine which abilities most important for humanity, if we recognize the priority of some over others, we will most likely make a mistake. Of course, if humanity were deprived of the ability to create, then it would hardly be able to develop. But if people did not have learning abilities, then the development of mankind would also be impossible. Development is possible only when people are able to absorb the full amount of knowledge accumulated by previous generations. Therefore, some authors believe that learning abilities are primarily general abilities, and creative skills are special, determining the success of creativity.

It should be noted that the ability to not only jointly determine the success of the activity, but also interact with each other, affecting each other

on friend. Depending on the availability and degree of development of abilities that are included in the complex of abilities of a particular person, each of them acquires a different character. Such mutual influence is especially strong when it comes to interdependent abilities, which together determine the success of an activity. Therefore, a certain combination of various highly developed abilities determines the level of development of abilities in a particular person.

23.2. Ability development levels and individual differences

In psychology, the following classification of the levels of development of abilities is most common: ability, giftedness, talent, and genius.

All abilities in the course of their development go through a series of stages, and in order for a certain ability to rise to a higher level in its development, it is necessary that it be sufficiently framed at the previous level. But for the development of abilities there must initially be a certain basis, which constitute the makings. Under the instincts are the anatomical and physiological features of the nervous system, which constitute the natural basis for the development of abilities. For example, the peculiarities of the development of various analyzers can serve as innate instincts. Thus, certain characteristics of the auditory perception can act as a basis for the development of musical abilities. The makings of intellectual abilities are manifested primarily in the functional activity of the brain - its greater or lesser excitability, mobility of nervous processes, the speed of formation of temporary connections, etc., that is, what IP Pavlov called the genotype is the innate features of the nervous system . These properties include:

1) the strength of the nervous system in relation to the excitation, i.e., its ability to withstand for a long time, without detecting the limiting inhibition, intense and often repeated loads;

2) the strength of the nervous system in relation to inhibition, ie, the ability to withstand prolonged and often repetitive inhibitory effects;

3) equilibrium of the nervous system in relation to excitation and inhibition, which manifests itself in the same reactivity of the nervous system in response to excitatory and inhibitory effects;

4) the lability of the nervous system, as measured by the rate of occurrence and termination of the nervous process of arousal or inhibition.

At present, in differential psychology, the 12-dimensional classification of the properties of the human nervous system proposed by V. D. Nsbylitsyn is most often used. It includes 8 primary properties (strength, mobility, dynamism and lability with respect to excitation and inhibition) and 4 secondary properties (balance in these basic properties). It has been proven that these properties can apply both to the entire nervous system (its general properties) and to individual analyzers (partial properties).

It should be noted that these congenital anatomical and physiological features of the structure of the brain, sensory organs and movement, or congenital deposits, determine the natural basis of individual differences between people. According to I.P. Pavlov, the basis of individual differences is determined by the prevailing type of higher nervous activity and the peculiarities of the correlation of signaling systems. Based on these criteria, we can distinguish three typological groups of people: the artistic type (the predominance of the first signal system), the mental type (the predominance of the second signal system) and the middle type (equal representation).

The typological groups identified by Pavlov imply the presence of various inborn instincts in members of one group or another. So, the main differences of the artistic type from the thinking one are manifested in the sphere of perception, where the “artist” is characterized by a holistic perception, and for the “thinker” - its fragmentation into separate parts; in the sphere of imagination and thinking, “artists” have a predominance of figurative thinking and imagination, while for “thinkers” abstract, theoretical thinking is more characteristic; in the emotional sphere, artistic faces are characterized by heightened emotionality, and rational intellectual responses to events are more characteristic of representatives of the thinking type.

Следует подчеркнуть, что наличие определенных задатков у человека не означает, что у него будут развиваться те или иные способности. Например, существенной предпосылкой для развития музыкальных способностей является тонкий слух. Но строение периферического (слухового) и центрального нервного аппарата является лишь предпосылкой к развитию музыкальных способностей. Строение мозга не предусматривает, какие профессии и специальности, связанные с музыкальным слухом, могут возникнуть в человеческом обществе. Не предусмотрено и то, какую область деятельности изберет для себя человек и какие возможности будут предоставлены ему для развития имеющихся у него задатков. Следовательно, в какой степени будут развиты задатки человека, зависит от условий его индивидуального развития.

Таким образом, развитие задатков — это социально обусловленный процесс, который связан с условиями воспитания и особенностями развития общества. Задатки развиваются и трансформируются в способности при условии, если в обществе возникла потребность в тех или иных профессиях, в частности где нужен именно тонкий музыкальный слух. Вторым существенным фактором развития задатков являются особенности воспитания.

Задатки неспецифичны. Наличие у человека задатков определенного вида не означает, что на их базе в благоприятных условиях обязательно должна развиться какая-то конкретная способность. На основе одних и тех же задатков могут развиваться различные способности в зависимости от характера требований, предъявляемых деятельностью. Так, человек, обладающий хорошим слухом и чувством ритма, может стать музыкальным исполнителем, дирижером, танцором, певцом, музыкальным критиком, педагогом, композитором и т. д. Вместе с тем нельзя считать, что задатки не влияют на характер будущих способностей. Так, особенности слухового анализатора скажутся именно на тех способностях, которые требуют особого уровня развития данного анализатора.

Исходя из этого мы должны сделать вывод о том, что способности в значительной степени социальны и формируются в процессе конкретной деятельности человека. В зависимости от того, существуют или отсутствуют условия для развития способностей, они могут быть потенциальными и актуальными.

Под потенциальными способностями понимаются те, которые не реализуются в конкретном виде деятельности, но способны актуализироваться при изменении соответствующих социальных условий. К актуальным способностям, как правило, относят те, которые необходимы именно в данный момент и реализуются в конкретном виде деятельности. Потенциальные и актуальные способности выступают косвенным показателем характера социальных условий, в которых развиваются способности человека. Именно характер социальных условий препятствует или способствует развитию потенциальных способностей, обеспечивает или не обеспечивает превращение их в актуальные.

As you already know, abilities are understood to be such individual features that are related to the success of performing any types of activities. Therefore, the ability to be considered as the main properties of the individual. However, no single ability can by itself ensure the success of an activity. The success of any activity always depends on a number of abilities. Observation alone, however perfect, is not enough to become a good writer. For a writer, observation, figurative memory, a number of qualities of thinking, abilities associated with written speech, the ability to concentrate and a number of other abilities are of paramount importance.

On the other hand, the structure of any particular ability includes universal or general qualities that meet the requirements of different types of activities, and special qualities that ensure success in only one type of activity. For example, studying mathematical abilities, V. A. Krutek-kiy found that in order to successfully perform mathematical activity it is necessary:

1) an active, positive attitude to the subject, a tendency to engage in it, turning into a high level of development in a passion;

2) a number of character traits, first of all, diligence, organization, independence, purposefulness, perseverance, as well as stable intellectual feelings;

3) the presence during the activity of favorable for its implementation of mental states;

4) a certain fund of knowledge and skills in the relevant field;

5) отвечающие требованиям данной деятельности индивидуально-психологические особенности в сенсорной и умственной сферах.

При этом первые четыре категории перечисленных свойств следует рассматривать как общие свойства, необходимые для всякой деятельности, а не считать их компонентами способностей, так как иначе компонентами способностей должны считаться интересы и склонности, черты характера, психические состояния, а также умения и навыки.

Последняя группа качеств является специфической, определяющей успешность только в конкретном виде деятельности. Это объясняется тем, что эти качества,

прежде всего проявляются в специфической сфере и не связаны с проявлением способностей в других областях. Например, судя по биографическим данным А. С. Пушкин много слез пролил в лицее над математикой, но заметных успехов не показал; Д. И. Менделеев в школе отличался большими успехами в области математики и физики, а по языковым предметам имел твердую «единицу».

К специальным способностям необходимо отнести также музыкальные, литературные, сценические и т. п.

Следующим уровнем развития способностей является одаренность. Одаренностью называется своеобразное сочетание способностей, которое обеспечивает человеку возможность успешного выполнения какой-либо деятельности.

В этом определении необходимо подчеркнуть то, что от одаренности зависит не успешное выполнение деятельности, а только возможность такого успешного выполнения. Для успешного выполнения всякой деятельности требуется не только наличие соответствующего сочетания способностей, по и овладение необходимыми знаниями и навыками. Какую бы феноменальную математическую одаренность ни имел человек, но если он никогда не учился математике, он не сможет успешно выполнять функции самого заурядного специалиста в этой области. Одаренность определяет только возможность достижения успеха в той или иной деятельности, реализация же этой возможности определяется тем, в какой мере будут развиты соответствующие способности и какие будут приобретены знания и навыки.

Индивидуальные различия одаренных людей обнаруживаются главным образом в направленности интересов. Одни люди, например, останавливаются на математике, другие — на истории, третьи — на общественной работе. Дальнейшее развитие способностей происходит в конкретной деятельности.

Следует отметить, что в структуре способностей можно выделить две группы компонентов. Одни занимают ведущее положение, а другие являются вспомогательными. Так, в структуре изобразительных способностей ведущими свойствами будут высокая природная чувствительность зрительного анализатора — чувство линии, пропорции, формы, светотени, колорита, ритма, а также сенсомоторные качества руки художника, высокоразвитая образная память и т. д. К вспомогательным же качествам можно отнести свойства художественного воображения, эмоциональную настроенность, эмоциональное отношение к изображаемому и т. д.

Ведущие и вспомогательные компоненты способностей образуют единство, обеспечивающее успешность деятельности. Однако структура способностей — это весьма гибкое образование. Соотношение ведущих и вспомогательных качеств в конкретной способности у разных людей неодинаково. В зависимости от того, какое качество у человека является ведущим, происходит формирование вспомогательных качеств, необходимых для выполнения деятельности. Более того, даже в рамках одной и той же деятельности люди могут обладать различным сочетанием качеств, которые позволят им одинаково успешно выполнять данную деятельность, компенсируя недостатки.

Следует отметить, что отсутствие способностей еще не означает непригодности человека к выполнению той или иной деятельности, поскольку существуют психологические механизмы компенсации отсутствующих способностей. Часто

заниматься деятельностью приходится не только тем, кто имеет к ней способности, но и тем, кто их не имеет. Если человек вынужден продолжать занятия этой деятельностью, он сознательно или неосознанно будет компенсировать недостаток способностей, опираясь на сильные стороны своей личности. По мнению Е. П. Ильина, компенсация может осуществляться через приобретаемые знания или умения, либо через формирование индивидуально-типического стиля деятельности, либо через другую, более развитую способность. Возможность широкой компенсации одних свойств другими ведет к тому, что относительная слабость какой-нибудь одной способности вовсе не исключает возможности успешного выполнения деятельности, наиболее тесно связанной с этой способностью. Недостающая способность может быть в очень широких пределах компенсирована другими, высокоразвитыми у данного человека. Вероятно, именно это обеспечивает возможность успешной деятельности человека в самых различных областях.

Проявление способностей всегда строго индивидуально и чаще всего неповторимо. Поэтому свести одаренность людей, даже занимающихся одной и той же деятельностью, к набору конкретных показателей представляется невозможным. С помощью различных психодиагностических методик можно лишь установить Наличие тех или иных способностей и определить относительный уровень их развития. Почему относительный? Потому что никто не знает абсолютных порогов, или уровней развития, тон или иной способности. Как правило, суждение выносится для конкретного человека путем сопоставления его результатов со средними результатами той или иной выборки обследуемых. Такой подход к оценке способностей основывается на применении количественных методов.

Характеризуя способности человека, часто выделяют такой уровень их развития, как мастерство, т. е. совершенство в конкретном виде деятельности. Когда говорят о мастерстве человека, в первую очередь имеют в виду его способность успешно заниматься производительной деятельностью. Однако отсюда не следует, что мастерство выражается в соответствующей сумме готовых умений и навыков. Мастерство в любой профессии предполагает психологическую готовность к творческим решениям возникающих проблем. Недаром говорят: «Мастерство — это когда "что" и "как" приходят одновременно», — подчеркивая, что для мастера нет разрыва между осознанием творческой задачи и нахождением способов ее решения.

Следующий уровень развития способностей человека — талант. Слово «талант» встречается в Библии, где имеет значение меры серебра, которую ленивый раб получил от господина на время его отсутствия и предпочел зарыть в землю, вместо того чтобы пустить в оборот и получить прибыль (отсюда и поговорка «зарыть свой талант в землю»). В настоящее время под талантом понимают высокий уровень развития специальных способностей (музыкальных, литературных и т. д.). Так же как и способности, талант проявляется и развивается в деятельности. Деятельность талантливого человека отличается принципиальной новизной, оригинальностью подхода.

Пробуждение таланта, так же как и способностей вообще, общественно обусловлено. То, какие дарования получат наиболее благоприятные условия для

В 1884 г , Гальтон организовал на Лондонской международной выставке здоровья антропометрическую лабораторию, где любой посетитель, заплатив три пенса и заполнив анкету, мог проверить свои интеллектуальные способности и определить свою мышечную силу, вес, рост и т. п.

В процессе своих исследований Гальтон пришел к выводу, что необходимо искусственное поддержание интеллектуального потенциала в человеческом обществе, что явилось предпосылкой к разработке учения о евгенике.

полноценного развития, зависит от потребностей эпохи и особенностей конкретных задач, которые стоят перед данным обществом.

Следует отметить, что талант — это определенное сочетание способностей, их совокупность. Отдельная изолированная способность, даже очень высокоразвитая, не может быть названа талантом. Например, среди выдающихся талантов можно найти много людей как с хорошей, так и с плохой памятью. Это связано с тем, что в творческой деятельности человека память — это лишь один из факторов, от которых зависит ее успешность. Но результаты не будут достигнуты без гибкости ума, богатой фантазии, сильной воли, глубокой заинтересованности.

Высший уровень развития способностей называют гениальностью. О гениальности говорят, когда творческие достижения человека составляют целую эпоху в жизни общества, в развитии культуры. Гениальных людей очень мало. Принято считать, что за всю пятитысячную историю цивилизации их было не более 400 человек. Высокий уровень одаренности, который характеризует гения, неизбежно связан с незаурядностью в различных областях деятельности. Среди гениев, добившихся подобного универсализма, можно назвать Аристотеля, Леонардо да Винчи, Р. Декарта, Г. В. Лейбница, М. В. Ломоносова. Например, М. В. Ломоносов достиг выдающихся результатов в различных областях знаний: химии, астрономии, математике и в то же время был художником, литератором, языковедом, превосходно знал поэзию. Однако это не означает, что все индивидуальные качества гения развиты в одинаковой степени. Гениальность, как правило, имеет свой «профиль», какая-то сторона в ней доминирует, какие-то способности проявляются ярче.

23.3. Природа человеческих способностей

The nature of human abilities still causes quite a heated debate among scientists. One of the most common points of view leads its history from Plato. Authors who adhere to this point of view state that abilities are biologically conditioned and their manifestation depends entirely on inherited characteristics. Training and education can only change the speed of their appearance, but they will always appear in one way or another. As evidence of this point of view, the facts of individual differences, noted in childhood, when the effect of training and education, it would seem, could not yet be decisive. For example, Mozart’s musical talent was revealed at the age of three, Haydn at four. Talent in painting and sculpture manifests itself somewhat later: at Raphael - at eight years old, at Van Dyck - at ten.

A peculiar development of the concept of inheritance abilities is the assumption of the connection abilities of a person with the mass of his brain. As you know, an adult's brain weighs on average about 1400 g. The determination of the brain mass of prominent people showed that their brain is somewhat larger than the average. So, the brain mass of I. S. Turgenev is 2012, the brain of D. Byron is 1800 g, etc. However, later this assumption turned out to be unsuccessful, since no less than examples of celebrities whose brain was less than the average value can be given. For example, in the famous chemist J. Liebig the brain weighed 1362 g, and in the writer A. France it was 1017 g. Moreover, it turned out that the mentally retarded person had the largest and heaviest brain - more than 3000 g.

The idea of ​​inheriting abilities is connected with the teachings of Franz Gall, called phrenology (from the Greek hrenos - “mind”, logos - “teaching”). Phrenologists tried to trace the dependence of the mental characteristics of a person on the external form of the skull. The basic idea was based on the fact that the cerebral cortex consists of a number of centers, each of which contains a specific human ability. The degree of development of these abilities is directly dependent on the size of the corresponding parts of the brain. On the basis of special measurements, a phrenological map was drawn up, where the surface of the skull was divided into 27 sections, each of which corresponded to a specific individual feature. Among them stood out "cones of ability" to music, poetry, painting; "Bumps" of ambition, stinginess, courage, etc. However, this approach proved to be untenable. Numerous autopsies have shown that the skull does not at all repeat the shape of the cerebral cortex, therefore the definition of the mental and moral characteristics of a person by the cones and depressions of the skull is unscientific and groundless.

The works of Francis Galton, who explained the inheritance of abilities on the basis of the principles of Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory, were widely known. Analyzing the biographies of prominent figures, Galgon came to the conclusion that the improvement of human nature is possible only by deducing, on the basis of the laws of heredity, a race of especially gifted, mentally and

physically developed people. Continuing the line of Galton, in the XX century. Kote determined the degree of giftedness of famous people by the number of lines allocated to them in the encyclopedic dictionary, and identified about 400 people, whose high abilities can be traced over several generations.

It should be noted that these statements are not without reason. Particularly impressive is the story of the family of German musicians Bach. For the first time, great musical abilities were manifested in it in 1550. The ancestor of the family was the baker V. Bach, who, as T. Ribot noted in his work “The heredity of mental properties,” averted the soul after work with music and singing. He had two sons, and a continuous series of musicians known in Germany for two centuries begins with them. There were about 60 musicians in the Bach family, more than 20 of them outstanding.

It was also established that the great-grandmother of L. N. Tolstoy, Olga Trubetskaya, and the great-grandmother of A. S. Pushkin, Evdokia Trubetskaya, were sisters. The five largest representatives of German culture - the poets Schiller and Hölderlin, the philosophers Schelling and Hegel, and the physicist Max Planck were related: they had a common ancestor - Johann Kant, who lived in the XV century.

In one of the studies conducted to study the role of heredity in the development of abilities, the musicality of children was determined, in which both parents were either musical or non-musical *. Below are the results of this study (Table 23.1).

Table 23.1

The dependence of musical abilities in children from the musical talent of parents

It should be noted that the data in the table, illustrating the role of hereditary factors, do not take into account the role of the environment in which children were raised. And we all know well that the development of abilities is largely determined by the role of the environment in which a person lives and acts. Modern studies conducted using the twin method, allow us to more accurately assess the role of the environment and heredity in the development of abilities. The essence of the twin method lies in the purposeful study of twins. Thus, in a number of studies, the abilities of odio-egg (monozygous) twins and simply siblings (so-called siblings) were compared with each other. It was found that the abilities and level of their development within monozygous pairs coincide in 70-80% of cases, and in sibs couples - in 40-50%. These studies have allowed to assert that abilities, or at least the makings, are closely related to heredity. However, the question of what is more important for the development of abilities, environment or heredity, remains unanswered.

* Rubinstein S. L. Problems of general psychology. - M .: Pedagogy, 1976.

A. Basho and R. Plumin, who studied certain characteristics of homozygous (with identical heredity) and heterozygous (with different heredity) twins, attempted to give an answer to this question. A comparative study of homozygous twins, who lived and were raised in different families, shows that their individual psychological and behavioral differences do not increase due to this, but most often remain the same as in children who grew up in the same family. Moreover, in some cases, individual differences between them are even reduced. Twin children, having the same heredity, as a result of separate education sometimes become more similar to each other than if they are brought up together. This is explained by the fact that children of the same age who are constantly next to each other almost never manage to do the same thing, and quite rarely are equal relations between such children.

Numerous dynasties of artists, artists, sailors, doctors, teachers also testify to the hereditary nature of abilities. However, most likely, in most cases it is necessary to talk not only about biological, but also about social heredity. The child follows in the footsteps of the parents not only because of hereditary predetermination, but also because he learned and loved their profession from childhood. Therefore, in the domestic psychological science is considered to be the concept of the hereditary nature of abilities is very interesting, but not explaining all the facts of the manifestations of abilities.

Representatives of another point of view believe that the peculiarities of the psyche are entirely determined by the quality of education and training. So, in the XVIII century. KA Helvetius proclaimed that through education, genius can be formed. Supporters of this trend refer to the cases when the children of the most backward and primitive tribes, having received the appropriate training, did not differ in any way from the educated Europeans. In the framework of the same approach, they talk about cases of social exclusion leading to a lack of communication, in particular about the so-called "Mowgli children." These cases are proof of the impossibility of human development itself outside of society. The facts of the mass development of some special abilities in certain cultures also speak in favor of this approach. An example of this development was found in the study of pitch hearing, which was conducted by O. N. Ovchinnikova and Yu. B. Gippenreiter under the direction of A. N. Leont'ev.

Acoustic pitch, or perception of pitch, forms the basis of musical hearing. Investigating this perceptual ability using a special method, scientists have found a strong underdevelopment of it in about one-third of adult Russian subjects. As expected, these same people were extremely non-musical. Applying the same method to Vietnamese subjects gave opposite results: all of them were in the group of the best in terms of pitch hearing. For other tests, these subjects also found 100% musicality. These amazing differences are explained in the peculiarities of the Russian and Vietnamese languages: the first refers to the timbre, the second - to the tonal languages. In Vietnamese, the pitch of the sound has a function of sense discrimination, and in Russian such a function is at the height of speech sounds

not. In Russian, as in all European languages, phonemes differ in their timbre. As a result, all Vietnamese, mastering native speech in early childhood, simultaneously develop a musical ear, which is not the case with Russian or European children. This example shows the role of environmental conditions and exercises in the formation of abilities.

The final conclusion of this concept was the proposition that every person can form any abilities. Adhering to this view, the American scientist W. Ushbi argues that abilities are determined primarily by the program of intellectual activity that was formed in a person in childhood. In accordance with their program, some people solve creative tasks, while others are able to perform only what they have been taught. Currently, supporters of this concept in the United States are creating special centers for “growing up” gifted children. For example, at the Philadelphia Institute for the best use of human potential, the activities on the intellectual development of children begin at four or five years old, believing that every minute is dear and the brain cannot be allowed to “idle”.

In turn, life observations and special studies indicate that it is impossible to deny the existence of natural prerequisites of abilities. Not recognizing the innate abilities, domestic psychology does not deny the innateness of the makings and structural features of the brain, which may be the conditions for the successful implementation of certain activities.

In domestic psychology, such prominent scientists as BM Teplov, V. D. Nebylitsyn, A. N. Leont'ev, and others were engaged in the problem of abilities. In a condensed form, the position that has developed in Russian psychology can be characterized as follows: human ability by nature biosocial.

Thus, heredity is of great importance for the development of abilities, since the features of the anatomical and physiological structure of the human nervous system determine to a great extent his inclinations. But, on the other hand, the makings of themselves do not mean that a person will develop the appropriate abilities. The development of abilities depends on many social conditions. These should include features of education, the need of society for a particular activity, features of the education system, etc.

23.4. Ability development

Any inclinations, before turning into abilities, must go a long way. For many human abilities, this development begins with the birth of a person and, if he continues to engage in those activities in which the corresponding abilities develop, does not stop until the end of his life.

In the development of abilities can be divided into several stages. Each person in his development goes through periods of heightened sensitivity to one or another influence, to mastering one or another type of activity. For example

measures, the child at the age of two or three years of age intensively develops oral speech; at the age of five to seven, he is most ready to master reading. On average and older preschool children, children play role-playing games with enthusiasm and find an extraordinary ability to reincarnate and live in a role. It is important to note that these periods of special readiness for mastering special types of activity end sooner or later, and if any function did not receive its development in a favorable period, then its development turns out to be extremely difficult, if not impossible at all. Therefore, for the development of a child’s abilities, all stages of his development as a person are important. You can not think that in older children a child will be able to catch up.

The primary stage in the development of any ability is associated with the maturation of the organic structures necessary for it or the formation of the necessary functional organs on their basis. This usually occurs from birth to six to seven years. At this stage, there is an improvement in the work of all analyzers, the development and functional differentiation of individual sections of the cerebral cortex. This creates favorable conditions for the beginning of the formation and development of the child's general abilities, a certain level of which acts as a prerequisite for the subsequent development of special abilities.

At the same time, the formation and development of special abilities begins. Then the development of special abilities continues in school, especially in the junior and middle grades. Initially, the development of special abilities helps various kinds of children's games, then a significant influence on them begins to have educational and work activities.

As you already know, children's games perform a special 4) ounce. It is games that give an initial impetus to the development of abilities. In the process of games, the development of many motor, design, organizational, artistic, and other creative abilities takes place. And an important feature of games is that, as a rule, not one, but a whole complex of abilities develops in them.

It should be noted that not all types of activities in which a child is engaged, be it playing, modeling or drawing, have the same value for the development of abilities. Most contributes to the development of creative abilities, which makes the child think. Such activity is always connected with the creation of something new, the discovery for oneself of new knowledge, the discovery in oneself of new possibilities. This becomes a strong and effective incentive to engage in it, to apply the necessary efforts aimed at overcoming the difficulties encountered. Moreover, creative activity strengthens positive self-esteem, raises the level of aspirations, generates self-confidence and a feeling of satisfaction from the achieved success.

If the activity being performed is in the zone of optimal difficulty, that is, at the limit of the child's capabilities, then it leads to the development of his abilities, realizing what Vygotsky called the zone of proximal development. Activities that are not located within this zone contribute to the development of abilities to a great degree. If it is too simple, it provides only the implementation of existing abilities; if it is excessively complex, it becomes impracticable and, therefore, also does not lead to the formation of new skills.

As you remember, the development of abilities to a large extent depends on the condition that allows making progress. One of these conditions are the features of seed education. If parents show concern for the development of the abilities of their children, then the probability of finding any abilities in the children is higher than when the children are left to themselves.

Another group of conditions for the development of abilities is determined by the peculiarities of macrostore. Macromedia is considered to be the peculiarities of the society in which a person was born and grows up. The most positive factor of the macro environment is the situation when the society takes care of the development of abilities of its members. This concern of society can be expressed in the continuous improvement of the education system, as well as in the development of the system of vocational guidance for the younger generation.

The need for career counseling is due to the extremely urgent problem faced by each person - the problem of choosing a life path and professional self-determination. Historically, two concepts of professional identity, which the French psychologist A. Leon called diagnostic and educational. The first - diagnostic - reduces the choice of an individual profession to the definition of its professional suitability. Консультант при помощи тестов измеряет способности человека и путем сопоставления их с требованиями профессии делает заключение о его пригодности или непригодности к данной профессии.

Многими учеными данная концепция профориентации оценивается как механистическая. В ее основе лежит взгляд на способности как на стабильные образования, мало подверженные влияниям среды. Субъекту в рамках данной концепции отводится пассивная роль.

Вторая — воспитательная — концепция направлена на подготовку индивида к профессиональной жизни, на его самоопределение в соответствии с запланированными воспитательными