Summary

General characteristics of perception. The concept of perception. The relationship of sensation and perception. Perception as a holistic reflection of objects. Theory of pattern recognition. Perception as a complex perceptual process.

The physiological basis of perception. Physiological mechanisms of perception. Reflex basis I01 of acceptance by I.P. Pavlov.

The main properties and types of perception. The basic properties of perception: objectivity, integrity, constancy, structure, meaningfulness, apperception, activity. Apperception phenomenon. The concept of the illusion of perception. Sensible perception. Basic perceptual classifications. Classification by modality. Classification according to the form of existence of matter: space, time, movement.

Individual differences in perception and its development in children. Individual types of perception. Synthetic and analytical types of perception. Descriptive and explanatory types of perception. Objective and subjective types of perception. Observation. Stages of development of perception in children. Works by B. M. Teplova, A. N. Zaporozhets.

Subject and background in perception. The ratio of the object and background. Conditions for the selection of the object from the background. The ease of selecting an object from the background.

The relationship between the whole and the part in perception. Features perception of the whole and parts. Identification signs of the subject. Individual differences and stages of perception.

Perception of space. Spatial properties of objects: size, shape of objects, position in space. Factors affecting the perception of the size of the object. Constancy and contrast of objects. Transferring the properties of the whole to its individual parts. Features of the perception of the shape of the object. Mechanisms of binocular vision. Perception of three-dimensional space and its physiological mechanisms. Concept of convergence and divergence of eyes. Mechanisms of orientation in space.

Perception of movement and time. Mechanisms of motion perception. Experiments E. Mach. The basic theory of motion perception. Theory V. Wundt. Phn-phenomenon M. Wertheimer. Theory of perception in Gestalt psychology. Mechanisms of time perception.

The concept of time periods. Factors determining the characteristics of time perception.

8.1. General perception characteristics

Perception is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, phenomena arising from the direct influence of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs.

Perception is a mental process that reflects a holistic image of objects and phenomena in the human mind with their direct effect on the senses.

Perception involves sensation and is based on it. But it does not boil down to a simple sum of sensations. It is a whole, which includes both replicated past experience, and the processes of understanding what is perceived, and other mental processes. In other words, perception differs from sensation in that it is an active process, as a result of which an image of an object is formed.

The main difference between perception and sensation is the holistic display of the object through the reflection of the entire set of its properties.

Perception is often called the human perceptual system .

In the previous chapter, we looked at sensation. The essence of this process is also to reflect the real world. The concepts of "sensation" and "perception" are interrelated, but there are also fundamental differences between them. When we talked about sensations, we emphasized that their content does not go beyond the elementary forms of reflection, and the essence of the processes of sensation is to reflect only certain properties of objects and phenomena of the world around us. However, the actual processes of reflection of the external world go far beyond the limits of elementary forms. A person does not live in the world of isolated light or color spots, sounds or touches, he lives in the world of things, objects and forms, in the world of difficult situations. Whatever a person perceives, invariably appears before him in the form of complete images.

The reflection of these images goes beyond the limits of isolated sensations. Based on the joint work of the senses, the synthesis of individual sensations into complex complex systems occurs. This synthesis can proceed both within one modality (for example, when we watch a movie, individual visual sensations are combined into whole images), and within several modalities (perceiving an orange, we actually combine visual, tactile, taste sensations, attaching to them and our knowledge of it). Only as a result of such a combination, isolated sensations turn into a holistic perception, they move from the reflection of individual signs to the reflection of whole objects or situations. Therefore, the main difference between perception and sensation is the objectivity of awareness of everything that affects us, that is, the display of an object of the real world in the totality of all its properties or, in other words, a holistic display of an object.

As you may have guessed, perception includes sensation and is based on it. At the same time, any perceptual image includes a number of sensations, since any object or phenomenon has many and different properties, each of which is capable of causing a sensation independently of other properties. However, it would be erroneous to believe that such a process (from relatively simple sensations to a complex image of perception) is a simple summation of individual sensations. In fact, the perception (or reflection) of entire objects or situations is much more complicated. In addition to sensations, in the process of perception, previous experience is involved, the processes of understanding what is perceived, that is, mental processes of a higher level, such as memory and thinking, are included in the process of perception. Therefore, perception is often called the perceptual system of a person.

Currently, there are various theories of the pattern recognition process. These theories focus on the following question: how are external signals affecting the senses transformed into meaningful perceptual images? As a rule, we identify objects and events around us easily and quickly; therefore, it may appear that recognition operations are simple and straightforward. However, this is not the case. Attempts by engineers to create machines that would be able to recognize the characters and sounds that are common to our environment, in most cases end in failure. The systems of perception of animals, even the most primitive, are far ahead of such machines in their capabilities.

Studies of psychophysiologists show that perception is a very complex process that requires significant analytical and synthetic work. First of all, the information we receive about objects and phenomena of the world around us is in no way the result of simple stimulation of the sense organs and bringing excitation from peripheral sensory organs to the cortex of the brain. In the process of perception, motor components are always included (palpation of objects and eye movement when perceiving specific objects; singing or pronouncing the corresponding sounds in perception of speech). Therefore, it is more correct to designate perception as perceptual (perceptual) activity of the subject. The result of this activity is a holistic view of the subject we face in real life.

In turn, the holistic reflection of the subject requires the isolation of the main attributes of the entire complex of influencing features (color, shape, weight, taste, etc.) with simultaneous abstraction (abstraction) from non-essential ones. Probably, we will not be mistaken if we make the assumption that on a given ethane of perception, thinking may take part in the formation of a perceptual image. At the same time, the next stage of perception requires combining a group of basic essential features and comparing the perceived complex of features with the previous knowledge of the subject, i.e., participates in the process of perception. If, with such a comparison, the hypothesis of the proposed subject coincides with the incoming information, recognition of the object occurs and its perception occurs. If the hypothesis does not agree with the information that actually reaches the subject, the search for the necessary solution continues until the subject finds it, that is, until he finds out the subject or assigns it to a specific category. Moreover, it should be borne in mind that the perception of familiar objects (cup, table), their recognition occurs very quickly - it is enough for a person to combine two or three perceived signs in order to arrive at the necessary solution. However, in the perception of new or unfamiliar objects, their recognition proceeds much more difficult and in more detailed forms. The full perception of such objects arises as a result of complex analytical-synthetic work, in which one, essential, signs stand out, others are inhibited, insignificant, and perceived signs are combined into one meaningful whole. Therefore, the speed of recognition or reflection of an object in the real world is largely determined by how actively perception, as a process, is active, that is, how actively this object is reflected.

Consequently, a huge role in perception is played by our desire to perceive a particular object, the consciousness of the need or duty to perceive it, volitional efforts aimed at achieving a better perception, perseverance, which we show in these cases. Thus, attention and focus (in this case, desire) are involved in the perception of the subject of the real world.

Speaking about the role of the desire to perceive objects of the world around us, we unwittingly prove that our attitude to what we perceive is of great importance for the process of perception. The subject can be interesting or indifferent for us, that is, it can evoke different feelings in us. Naturally, an interesting subject for us will be perceived by us more actively, and vice versa, we may not even notice an object that is indifferent to us.

Thus, it is necessary to conclude that perception is very complex, but at the same time it is a single process aimed at knowing what is currently affecting us.

8.2. The physiological basis of perception

The physiological basis of perception is the processes taking place in the sensory organs, nerve fibers and the central nervous system. So, under the action of stimuli in the endings of the nerves present in the senses,

nervous excitement, which is transmitted through conductive paths to the nerve centers and, ultimately, to the cerebral cortex. Here it enters the projection (sensory) zones of the cortex, which are, as it were, the central projection of the nerve endings present in the senses. Depending on the organ with which the projection zone is connected, certain sensory information is formed.

It should be noted that the mechanism described above is the mechanism for the emergence of sensations. Indeed, sensations are formed at the level of the proposed scheme. Therefore, sensations can be considered as a structural element of the process of perception. Own physiological mechanisms of perception are included in the process of forming an integral image in subsequent stages, when the excitation from projection zones is transferred to the integrative zones of the cerebral cortex, where the formation of images of real-world phenomena takes place. Therefore, the integrative zones of the cerebral cortex, which complete the process of perception, are often called perceptual zones. Their function is significantly different from the functions of the projection zones.

This difference is clearly detected when the activity of a particular zone is disturbed. For example, in case of a disruption in the work of the visual projection zone, the so-called central blindness occurs, that is, if the periphery is in good condition - sense organs - the person completely loses visual sensations, he does not see anything. The situation is quite different in case of defeat or violation of the work of the integrative zone. A person sees separate light spots, some contours, but does not understand what he sees. He ceases to comprehend that which affects him, and does not even recognize well-known objects. A similar picture is observed in violation of the activities of the integrative zones of other modalities. So, in violation of the integrative auditory zones, people no longer understand human speech. Such diseases are called agnostic disorders (disorders leading to the impossibility of cognition), or agnosia,

The physiological basis of perception is even more complicated by the fact that it is closely connected with motor activity, with emotional experiences, and various mental processes. Consequently, having begun in the sense organs, the nervous excitations caused by external stimuli pass into the nervous centers, where they cover various zones of the cortex, enter into interactions with other nervous excitations. This whole network of excitations, interacting with each other and widely covering different zones of the cortex, forms the physiological basis of perception.

Since perception is closely related to sensation, it can be assumed that it, like sensation, is a reflex process. The reflex basis of perception was discovered by IP Pavlov. He showed that the basis of perception is conditioned reflexes, i.e., temporary neural connections formed in the cerebral cortex when exposed to receptors of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world. At the same time, the latter act as complex stimuli, since the processing of the excitation caused by them in the nuclei of the cortical parts of the analyzers involves complex processes of analysis and synthesis. I.P.Pavlov wrote: “In harmony with the continuously and diversely oscillating

It is interesting How a person recognizes objects! From a practical point of view, the main function of perception is to ensure the recognition of objects, i.e., they are assigned to one category or another: this is the shirt, this is the cat, this is the daisy, etc. Similarly, recognition occurs. What is recognition and what are its mechanisms? In essence, recognizing objects, we draw conclusions about the many hidden properties of the object. For example, if it is a shirt or a suit, then they are made of fabric, they are designed to be worn. If it is a dog, then it can perform guarding functions, and, therefore, it can pounce on us in the case of our wrong actions, etc. Thus, recognition is what allows one to go beyond the limits of sensory display of the properties of an object. What properties of an object are necessary for its recognition? Any object has a certain form, size, color, etc. All these properties are important for its recognition. Nevertheless, we learn the cup, regardless of whether it is large or small, white or brown, smooth or with a relief. Then the question arises: how are these properties used in recognition? Currently, it is customary to single out several stages in the process of object recognition, some of which are preliminary and others are final. At the preliminary stages, the perceptual system uses information from the retina of the eye and describes the object in the language of elementary components, such as lines, edges and corners. At the final stages, the system compares this description with descriptions of forms of various kinds of objects stored in the visual memory, and selects the best match for it. Moreover, during recognition, most of the information processing, both at the preliminary and at the final stages of recognition, is inaccessible to consciousness. Consider the preliminary stages in which a description of the shape of the object. Much of what is known today about the elementary features of the object of perception was obtained in biological experiments on animals using the recording of the activity of individual cells of the visual cortex. In these studies, the sensitivity of specific cortical neurons during the presentation of various stimuli to those parts of the retina that are associated with these neurons was studied; This area of ​​the retina is called the receptive field of the cortical neuron. The first studies with the registration of the activity of individual cells of the visual cortex were conducted by Hubel and Wiesel in 1968. In the visual cortex, they isolated three types of cells that differ in their characteristics to which they react. Simple cells react when the eye is shown a stimulus in the form of a line (a thin strip or a straight face between the dark and light areas), which has a certain orientation and position in the receptive field. Other simple cells are tuned to other orientations and positions. Complex cells also react to a strip or edge of a certain orientation, but for them it is not necessary that the stimulus be in a certain place in the receptive field. They react to a stimulus anywhere in their receptive field, and they react continuously as the stimulus moves along their receptive field. Supercompound cells respond to a stimulus not only of a certain orientation, but also of a certain length. If the length of the stimulus goes beyond the optimum, the reaction is weakened and may completely cease. Later, cells were detected that respond to other forms of stimuli, in addition to strips and edges. For example, super-complex cells were detected that respond to angles and curved lines of a certain length. All of the above cell types are called feature detectors. Since the edges, stripes, corners and kinks to which these detectors react can be used to approximate a variety of shapes, there is reason to treat the feature detectors as building blocks from which the perceived shape is built. However, the information obtained by the detectors further goes through a complex processing system. Currently, there is no single point of view on how this happens. One hypothesis is based on the assumption that these cells form entire networks. Each element of this network reflects some specific characteristic of the perceived object (line, curve, angle, etc.). The result is a holistic image of the object. Of course, this is a very simplified understanding of this concept.

It is interesting Probably, these networks are complex in their structure, but so far we know too little about them. At the same time, the available experimental data suggest that the shape of natural objects (for example, a human face) consists of more complex features than lines and curves, and more closely resembles simple geometric figures. These signs are such that their combination allows you to create the shape of any recognizable object. One of the assumptions was that some geometric shapes, such as cylinders, cones, parallelepipeds, and wedges, are included in the feature features. Such signs can be called geons (neologism from "geometric ions"). This assumption was made by Biederman in 1987. He believes that a set of 36 geons combined with a small set of spatial relationships will be enough to describe the shape of all the objects that a person is able to recognize. Note that a total of two geons of 36 x 36 different objects can be made up (an object can be formed from any two geons, and from three geons 36 x 36 x 36 objects. These numbers add up to about 30,000 in total, and the possible objects of four or more geons. In addition, geons shown in Fig. 1 differ only in their simplest characteristics, for example, geon 2 (cube) differs from geon 3 (cylinder) in that the cube has straight edges, and the cylinder has curved; straight and curved lines are simple signs. The fact that geons are identifying signs of objects was confirmed in experiments in which subjects were asked to recognize painted objects presented for a short time. The overall result was that the object is recognized as well as its geons are perceived . There is much more information about the principles of the recognition process. In particular, it is known that the recognition of natural objects is carried out according to the “top-down” principle, and it is also known that the context in which we perceive an object significantly affects the character of its recognition. Why is this happening exactly? The fact is that in perception there is a fundamental difference between the processing processes proceeding “from bottom to top” or “top to bottom”. Bottom-up processes are controlled only by input signals, and top-down processes are controlled by knowledge

Fig. 1 Explanation in the text

It is interesting and the expectations of the person. For example, when based on only a geon description of an object, the latter is recognized as a lamp, then only bottom-up processes are involved; everything starts with the appearance of simple attributes of this object at the input, then the geon configuration of the input data is determined, and then this description is compared with the stored form descriptions in memory. On the contrary, if we recognize a lamp in some object, in part because it is on a bedside table next to the bed, then the “top-down” processes are involved; here, not only the information that came to the sensory input, but also the context in which an object is perceived, is involved. It is precisely the principle of processing “from above — down that conditions the strong influence of the context on our perception of objects and people. An example of such a mechanism are dual images. This effect of a temporary context is visible on an example of the images presented on fig. 2. Look at them, as when reading a story in pictures - from left to right and from top to bottom. The pictures in the middle of this sequence are ambiguous. If you looked at these images in the proposed sequence, then most likely you saw in them a male face. If you look at them in reverse order, then in dual pictures you will most likely see a young woman.

by nature, agents as conditioned stimuli were allocated to the organism as hemispheres as extremely small elements (analyzed), then merged into diverse complexes (synthesized) ”. Analysis and synthesis provide the selection of the object of perception from the environment, and on this basis all its properties are combined into a complete image.

Temporary neural connections, providing the process of perception, can be of two types: formed within a single analyzer and interanalyzer. The first type occurs when the complex stimulus of one modality is affected by the organism. For example, such an irritant is a melody, which is a peculiar combination of individual sounds acting on the auditory analyzer. This whole complex acts as one complex irritant. At the same time, neural connections are formed not only in response to the stimuli themselves, but also to their attitude — temporal, spatial, etc. (the so-called reflex to attitude). As a result, the integration process, or complex synthesis, takes place in the cerebral cortex.

The second type of neural connections formed under the influence of a complex stimulus is connections within different analyzers, the emergence of which was explained by I. Sechenov by the existence of associations (visual, kinesthetic, tactile, etc.). These associations in a person must be accompanied

There are aurally words that make the perception becomes holistic. For example, if you blindfold and give a spherical object in your hands, after saying that it is an edible object, and you can feel its peculiar smell and taste it, then you can easily understand what you are dealing with. In the process of working with this familiar but invisible subject for you at the moment, you will mentally name it, i.e., there will be a re-creation of the auditory image, which is in its essence a kind of generalization of the properties of the subject. As a result, you can even describe what you are not observing at the moment. Consequently, due to the connections formed between the analyzers, we reflect in the perception such properties of objects or phenomena for the perception of which there are no specially adapted analyzers (for example, the size of the object, the specific gravity, etc.).

Thus, the basis of the complex process of building the image of perception is the system of intraanalyzer and interanalyzer connections that provide the best conditions for seeing stimuli and taking into account the interaction of the properties of the object as a complex whole.

Phases of perception

The result of perception is the mental image of the object.

Perception is the result of complex analytical and synthetic activity. It consists of the following perceptual phases:

1. Detection (the initial phase in which the object is selected from the general background of stimuli).

2. Discrimination (selection in the object of the most characteristic features by which it can be identified).

3. Identification (identification of an object with samples in memory).

4. Identification of the object (its coincidence with the sample in memory, its assignment to a certain category of objects, “naming of the object”).

At the first stage of the perception process, a complex of stimuli is selected from the flow of information and the decision is made that they belong to the same specific object. At the second stage, a complex of features is searched in the memory of a similar or similar in composition sensations by which an object can be identified. At the third stage, the perceived object is assigned to a certain category with the subsequent search for additional signs confirming or disproving the correctness of the decision. And, finally, at the fourth stage, a final conclusion is formed that this is an object, with ascribing to it not yet perceived properties, characteristic of objects of the same class with it.

An important role in perception is played by a person’s desire to perceive one or another object, consciousness of the need or duty to perceive it, as well as volitional efforts aimed at achieving a better perception, perseverance, which he also displays. Thus, in the perception of the subject of the real world involved the attention and focus of the individual.

Iii. Types of perception

1. Perception of space can occur at different levels. The spatial properties of the object include: size, shape, position in space. In the perception of three-dimensional space, first of all, the functions of the special vestibular apparatus, located in the inner ear, as well as the binocular vision apparatus are involved.

2. The perception of time , despite the importance of this problem, is studied much less than the question of the perception of space. The complexity of the study of this issue lies in the fact that time is not perceived as a phenomenon of the material world. Its course can be judged only on certain grounds.

Наиболее элементарными формами являются процессы восприятия, в основе которых лежат элементарные ритмические явления, известные под названием «биологических часов». В целом, при исследовании восприятия времени необходимо учитывать два основных аспекта: восприятие временной длительности и восприятие временной последовательности.

Оценка длительности временного отрезка во многом зависит от того, какими событиями он был заполнен. Если событий было много, и они были интересны, то время идет быстрее. И наоборот, если событий было мало или они были не интересны, то время тянется медленно. Временной отрезок, заполненный разнообразными событиями, кажется более продолжительным, и наоборот.

Оценка длительности времени зависит и от эмоциональных переживаний. Если события вызывают положительное отношение к себе, то время кажется быстро идущим. И наоборот, негативные переживания удлиняют временной отрезок.

Кроме внутренних механизмов восприятия времени человек также пользуется определенными величинами временных интервалов. Такими интервалами могут быть день, неделя, месяц, год, столетие и т. п. Существование этих интервалов возможно потому, что в них чередуется определенная смена событий, например заход и восход солнца. Так, по количеству восходов мы можем судить, сколько прошло дней, недель, месяцев, лет.

Thus, in the perception of time by man it is necessary to distinguish two aspects: the subjective and objectively conditional. The subjective aspect is connected with our personal assessment of passing events, which, in turn, depends on the fullness of this time period with events, as well as their emotional coloring. The objectively conditional aspect is associated with the objective course of events and a series of conditionally agreed points of reference, or time intervals. If the first aspect reflects the internal sense of time, the second aspect helps a person to navigate in time.

Iv. The basic properties of perception

The main properties of perception include the following: objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, meaningfulness, selectivity.

The objectiveness of perception is the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world not as a set of unrelated sensations, but in the form of separate objects.

Another property of perception is integrity . In contrast to the sensation that reflects the individual properties of the object, perception gives a holistic image of the object.

The integrity of perception is also related to its structure (the opposite of integrity) - the ability to distinguish parts in the image of an object or phenomenon, as a result of which the relationship between parts is available to the person

The next property of perception is constancy . Constancy is the relative constancy of the reflection of certain properties of objects when the physical conditions of their perception change. For example, a truck moving away will be perceived as a large object, although its image on the retina will be significantly smaller than its image, as if it were nearby.

The next property of perception is its meaningfulness. Perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. As mentioned above, the perception of a person is closely connected with thinking. The connection of thinking and perception is primarily expressed in the fact that consciously perceiving an object is to mentally name it, that is, to refer it to a certain group, class, to associate it with a certain word.

Another property of perception is selectivity. It lies in the fact that at any time a person can perceive only one object or a specific group of objects, while other objects of the real world are the background of perception, that is, they are not reflected in consciousness. For example, a student, listening to a lecture or reading a book, does not pay attention at all to what is happening behind his back.

V. Perception Phenomena

The phenomena of perception were best described and analyzed by the school of Gestalt psychology.

1. The law of the figure and background.

It is accepted to call a figure a closed, protruding, attracting the attention part of the phenomenological field, and everything that surrounds the figure is the background.

The selection of an object from the background is connected with the peculiarities of our perception, namely with the objectiveness of perception. It is easier to distinguish what is actually a separate subject and is well known from past experience. Selection of an object from the background makes it easier to know what needs to be found, especially if it is a specific image of the object, as well as the selection of the object from the background, which makes it possible to draw around the outlines of the object or to touch the objects with your hands, i.e. the possibility of manipulating objects.

It should be noted that the ratio of the subject and background is a dynamic relationship. What is currently related to the background may, after some time, become an object, and vice versa, what was an object may become a background. This is confirmed by the following example. Figure 5. shows a white vase against a black circle, but if you look closely at this picture, you can see that the background also has a certain meaning. In this case, you can see that not the vase is depicted, but the profiles of human faces.

Vase Rubin

2. The law of filling gaps.

The second important principle of Gestalt psychology is the principle of filling gaps. It manifests itself in the fact that our brain always tries to bring the fragmented image into a figure with a simple and complete outline. Therefore, when an object, an image, a melody, a word or a phrase is represented only by scattered elements, the brain will automatically try to put them together and add the missing parts. For example, when a performance of a famous song or advertisement that was heard a thousand times suddenly interrupted by a radio, the human brain automatically restores the missing.

3. Paradoxes of perception

The organization of perceptual processes and the features of constancy (constancy) ensure a consistent and coherent perception of the environment. However, there are cases when the perception is distorted: “When contradictory signals come from the objects themselves - in this case we are talking about ambiguous pictures , which at first glance seem to be“ normal ”, but soon become incomprehensible, because they cause two contradictory perceptions, and there is no sign depth, which would allow to determine what is the figure, and what background.

When an individual interprets monocular signals received from objects incorrectly: some signs of perspective, depth, shape or size, conflicting with each other, give rise to visual illusions.

One explanation of a number of illusions is based on the propensity to perceive as larger what is further, given the effect of perspective. This causes the human brain to mistakenly exaggerate the size of that of the two equal items, which is more removed (for example, this is the case with the Muller-Layer illusion).

8.3. Basic properties and types of perception

Having clarified the essence of the concept of “perception” and examining its physiological mechanisms, we proceed to consider the basic properties of perception as a cognitive mental process. The main properties of perception include the following: objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, meaningfulness, apperception, activity.

The objectiveness of perception is the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world not as a set of unrelated sensations, but in the form of separate objects. It should be noted that objectivity is not an innate property of perception. The emergence and improvement of this property occurs in the process of ontogenesis, starting from the first year of a child’s life. I. Sechenov believed that objectivity is formed on the basis of movements that ensure the contact of the child with the object. Without the participation of the movement, the images of perception would not have the quality of objectivity, that is, attribution to the objects of the external world.

Speaking about the role of movement in ensuring objectivity of perception, we can not stop on a more detailed consideration of the motor component of perception. The motor components include: the movement of the hand, feeling the subject; eye movements tracing the visible contour; movements of the larynx, reproducing sound, etc.

In general, it should be noted that the eyes and hands have a lot in common. Thus, the eyes, like the hands, consistently examine, or “grope”, the contours of the drawing and the object. Eye movements are diverse and perform many functions. At visual perception micro-and macro movements of eyes take place. If the observer stares intently at some point of a fixed object, then subjectively he gets the idea that he fixes this point at a fixed point.

gaze. However, the registration of eye movements shows that, in reality, visual perception is accompanied by involuntary and imperceptible micromovements for the observer. Thus, the possibility of subject perception is largely due to the presence in the process of perception of the motor component. And this is true not only for visual or tactile perception. This is typical of other modalities. So, having heard a sound or having felt a smell, we make certain approximate movements concerning a source of irritation. However, as in the case of micro-eye movements, these indicative movements are often not recognized by man.

Another property of perception is integrity. In contrast to the sensation that reflects the individual properties of the object, perception gives a holistic image of the object. It is formed on the basis of generalization of information obtained in the form of various sensations about the individual properties and qualities of the subject. The components of the sensation are so tightly interconnected that a single complex image of an object arises even when a person is directly affected by only certain properties or individual parts of an object. This image arises conditioned reflex due to the connection between different sensations. Or, in other words, the integrity of perception is expressed in the fact that even if the individual properties of the perceived object are not fully reflected, the mental completion of the infurement to a holistic image of a particular object occurs.

Integrity of perception is connected with its structure. This property is that perception in most cases is not a projection of our instant sensations and is not a simple sum of them. We perceive the generalized structure that is abstracted from these sensations, which has been forming for some time. For example, if a person listens to a melody, the notes heard earlier still continue to sound in his mind when information about the sound of a new note arrives. Usually the listener understands the melody, that is, perceives its structure as a whole. Obviously, the last note heard cannot by itself be the basis for such an understanding - the entire melody with the various interrelations of its constituent elements continues to sound in the listener's mind. Thus, perception brings to our consciousness the structure of an object or phenomenon that we encountered in the real world.

The next property of perception is constancy. Constancy is the relative constancy of certain properties of objects when the conditions of their perception change. For example, a truck moving away will still be perceived as a large object, despite the fact that its image on the retina will be much smaller than its image when we stand near it.

Due to the property of constancy, manifested in the ability of the perceptual system to compensate for changes in the conditions of perception, we perceive the objects around us as relatively permanent. The greatest degree of constancy is observed in the visual perception of the color, size and shape of objects.

Thus, the constancy of color perception lies in the relative invariance of the visible color when the light changes. For example, a lump of coal in the summer

Chapter 8. Perception • 209

sunny afternoon will be about eight to nine times lighter than chalk at twilight. However, we perceive its color as black, not white. At the same time, the color of chalk, even at dusk, will be white for us. It should be noted that the phenomenon of constancy of color is due to the cumulative effect of a number of reasons, including adaptation to a general level of brightness of the visual field by a luminous contrast, as well as ideas about the actual color of objects and the conditions of their illumination.

The constancy of the perception of the magnitude of objects is expressed in the relative constancy of the apparent magnitude of objects with their different distances. For example, the above illustration with a truck. Another example - the growth of the same person from a distance of 3.5 and 10 meters is perceived by us as unchanged, although the size of the image of this person on the retina of the eye, depending on distance, will be different. This is explained by the fact that with a relatively small distance of objects, the perception of their size is determined not only by the size of the image on the retina, but also by the action of a number of factors. Such an additional, but very significant factor is the tension of the eye muscles, which adapt to fixing the object at different distances. As a result, information about the degree of intensity of the eye muscles is transmitted to the brain and is taken into account in the complex analytical work of the perceptual system, which it performs when assessing a person's height.

The constancy of the perception of the shape of objects lies in the relative immutability of perception with a change in the position of objects with respect to the line of sight of the observer. With each change in the position of the object relative to the eyes, the shape of its image on the retina changes (for example, you can look at the object directly, from the side, from the back, etc.). However, due to the movement of the eyes along the contour lines of objects and the selection of characteristic combinations of contour lines, known to us from past experience, the shape of the perceived object remains constant for us.

The source of constancy of perception is the active actions of the perceptual system. Repeated perception of the same objects under different conditions ensures the constancy (invariance, invariable structure) of the perceptual image with respect to changing conditions, as well as the movements of the receptor apparatus itself. Thus, the property of constancy is explained by the fact that perception is a kind of self-regulating action that has a feedback mechanism and adapts to the features of the perceived object and the conditions of its existence. Without the constancy of perception, a person could not navigate in an infinitely diverse and changeable world.

Prior perceptual experience is of great importance in the process of perception. Moreover, the peculiarities of perception are determined by all previous practical and life experience of a person, since the process of perception is inseparable from activity.

It should be noted that perception depends not only on the nature of the irritation, but also on the subject himself. They perceive not the eye and the ear, but a concrete, living person. Therefore, in perception always affect the characteristics of a person's personality. The dependence of perception on the total content of our mental life is called apperception.

A huge role in apperception is played by a person’s knowledge, his previous experience, his past practice. For example, if you show a number of unfamiliar figures, then at the first phases of perception you will try to find some standards with which you could characterize the perceived object. In the process of perception, in order to classify what you perceive, you will put forward and test hypotheses about the belonging of an object to one or another category of objects. Thus, perception activates past experience. Therefore, the same subject can be perceived differently by different people.

Knowledge and experience have a significant impact on the accuracy and clarity of perception. For example, without recognizing unfamiliar words in the perception of a foreign language, we nevertheless unambiguously parse the native language even when the words are pronounced indistinctly.

The content of perception is determined by both the task set before the person, and the motives of his activity, his interests and orientation. For example, one who has little interest in technology often sees only gross differences in cars of different designs and does not notice many other design features.

A significant place in apperception is occupied by attitudes and emotions, which can change the content of perception. For example, the quality control controller at work easily finds defective parts, not only because he knows how to do it well, but because as a result of his professional activity, he has developed an installation for the perception of the products he checks from this side. We see a similar picture in relation to the emotional coloring of the perceived information. So, the mother of a sleeping child may not hear the noise of the street, but instantly reacts to any sound that comes from the child.

The phenomenon of erroneous (false) or distorted perception is called the illusion of perception. Illusions are observed in all types of perception (visual, auditory, etc.). The nature of illusions is determined not only by subjective reasons, such as installation, direction, emotional attitude, etc., but also by physical factors and phenomena: illumination, position in space, etc.

The next property of perception is its meaningfulness. Although perception arises from the direct action of the stimulus on the senses, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. As we have said, the perception of a person is closely connected with thinking. The connection of thinking and perception is primarily expressed in the fact that consciously perceiving an object is to mentally name it, that is, to refer it to a certain group, class, to associate it with a certain word. Даже при виде незнакомого предмета мы пытаемся установить в нем сходство с другими предметами. Следовательно, восприятие не определяется просто набором раздражителей, воздействующих на органы чувств, а представляет собой постоянный поиск наилучшего толкования имеющихся данных.

Процесс осмысления воспринимаемой информации может быть представлен структурно-логической схемой. На первом этапе процесса восприятия происхо-

дит выделение комплекса стимулов из потока информации и принятие решения о том, что они относятся к одному и тому же определенному объекту. На втором этапе происходит поиск в памяти аналогичного или близкого по составу ощущений комплекса признаков, по которым можно идентифицировать объект. На третьем этапе происходит отнесение воспринятого объекта к определенной категории с последующим поиском дополнительных признаков, подтверждающих или опровергающих правильность принятого решения. И наконец, на четвертом этапе формируется окончательный вывод о том, что это за объект, с приписыванием ему еще не воспринятых свойств, характерных для объектов одного с ним класса. Таким образом, восприятие — это в значительной степени интеллектуальный процесс.

Говоря об основных свойствах восприятия, мы не можем не остановиться еще на одном, не менее существенном свойстве восприятия как психического процесса. Это свойство — активность (или избирательность). Оно заключается в том, что в любой момент времени мы воспринимаем только один предмет или конкретную группу предметов, в то время как остальные объекты реального мира являются фоном нашего восприятия, т. е. не отражаются в нашем сознании.

Например, вы слушаете лекцию или читаете книгу и совсем не обращаете внимания на то, что происходит у вас за спиной. Вы воспринимаете или речь лектора, или текстовое содержание книги, поскольку ваше восприятие направлено (т. е. активировано) именно на это, но так было до тех пор, пока я не сказал вам об этом. Сказав о том, что вы не обращаете внимания на то, что происходит у вас за спиной, я перенаправил на определенный период времени ваше внимание на другой пространственный участок, и вы стали воспринимать те предметы, которые находятся вокруг вас, в том числе и за вашей спиной, т. е. те предметы, которые минуту назад никак не были представлены в вашем сознании.

Таким образом, мы можем полагать, что природа активности восприятия обусловлена самой природой нашего сознания.

Познакомившись с основными свойствами восприятия, давайте ответим на вопрос, какие основные виды восприятия существуют. Опираясь на современную психологическую литературу, можно выделить несколько подходов к классификации восприятия (рис. 8.1). В основе одной из классификаций восприятия, так же как и ощущений, лежат различия в анализаторах, участвующих в восприятии. В соответствии с тем, какой анализатор (или какая модальность) играет в восприятии преобладающую роль, различают зрительное, слуховое, осязательное, кинестетическое, обонятельное и вкусовое восприятие.

Usually, perception is the result of the interaction of a number of analyzers. Motor sensations to some extent participate in all types of perception. An example is tactile perception, in which tactile and kinesthetic analyzers are involved. Similarly, the motor analyzer is also involved in the auditory and visual perception. Different types of perception are rarely found in their pure form. Usually they are combined, and as a result, complex types of perception arise. Thus, a student’s perception of text in a lesson includes visual, auditory, and kinesthetic perception.

The basis of another type of classification of types of perception are the forms of existence of matter: space, time and motion. In accordance with this classification allocate the perception of space, the perception of time and the perception of movement.

Fig. 8.1. Classification of the main types of perception

8.4. Individual differences in perception and its development in children

Perception depends on the characteristics of the individual. Our knowledge, interests, habitual attitudes, emotional attitude to what affects us, affect the process of perception of objective reality. Since all people differ in their interests and attitudes, as well as in a number of other characteristics, we can assert that there are individual differences in perception (Fig. 8.2).

Individual differences in perception are large, but nevertheless, it is possible to distinguish certain types of these differences, which are characteristic not for one particular person, but for a whole group of people. First of all, it is necessary to attribute the differences between holistic and detailed, or synthetic and analytical, perception.

Fig. 8.2. Individual differences in perception

The holistic, or synthetic, type of perception is characterized by the fact that those who are inclined towards it are most clearly represented by the general impression of the subject, the general content of the perception, and the general features of what is perceived. People with this type of perception pay less attention to details and details. They do not emit them specifically, but if they seize, they are not in the first place. Therefore, many of the details go unnoticed by them. They capture the meaning of the whole more than the detailed content and especially its individual