3. DEVELOPMENT: STAGES, THEORIES, LAWS AND REGULARITIES. PRENATAL AND PERINATAL DEVELOPMENT

Human life begins at the moment of fertilization. This is confirmed by numerous studies. From the moment of fertilization in a woman’s body, the embryo lives its own life, reacts to voices, to the mood of the mother, to external stimuli. There is a hypothesis that the embryo begins to react even earlier than the central nervous system is formed, because the cells of a living organism can detect changes in the chemical composition of the mother’s blood. And such changes inevitably appear in connection with any positive or negative emotions of a woman.

Almost immediately after fertilization, i.e., after 30 hours, the human embryo becomes two-cell. After another 10 hours, the embryo consists of 4 cells; after 3 days, it consists of 12 cells. The first cells (blastomeres) are in close contact with each other, they are larger than ordinary somatic cells of the human body. At this time, the embryo is called "morula" (from the Latin. Morum - "mulberry berry"). Such a name arose because the embryo looks like a berry.

The nervous system of the embryo is formed from the 3-4th week of intrauterine life, it develops throughout the subsequent intrauterine period. Despite the fact that the nervous system occurs very early, the brain will develop over the years after the birth of a child. But the central nervous system begins to function already in the maternal organism. The American scientist T. Verni argues that the personality of a person is formed before his birth. The child feels the thoughts, experiences, and emotions of the mother; it is these impressions that will later shape his character, behavior, and psyche. The 28-week fetus already has mimic reactions. The fruit expresses its attitude to the taste of the food that the mother eats. Grimaces of displeasure appear to be salty and bitter, and, on the contrary, sweet evokes an expression of pleasure in the embryo. The fetus responds with a special expression on the mother's crying, cry, anger.

Numerous studies have shown that in the development of the fetus plays an important role of the nervous system. If the fetus for some reason damages the brain, the length and mass decrease, then the fetus may die during childbirth. Fetal movements in the mother’s body are determined by the activity

developing nervous system. Swallowing and prehensile movements are expressed, limbs are mobile. The grasping effect first appears at the age of 11.5 weeks of intrauterine life.

Specialists in early brain development, the external environment and mental health have proven that the child feels negative emotions of the mother, and they influence him in the strongest way. The main characteristics of the brain depend not only on heredity, but also on the quality of the contact of the fetus with the environment. If the unborn child was not desirable for the mother, she was embittered or irritated during pregnancy, then the fetus felt it all. Hormones, which are formed in the body of a woman, the most negative impact on the child.

The act of birth is accompanied by severe stress for both the mother and the newborn. After the child was born, the nervous system is deeply shocked by all that happened. This gives reason to talk about the psychological trauma of birth.

Understanding the fact that the child feels and is conscious before birth, makes it possible for the pregnant woman to realize that she can influence the child’s personality, can direct his development in one direction or another with the help of her thoughts and feelings. This does not mean that any passing disturbances or anxieties can harm the child and qualitatively affect his character, in some cases it can even play a positive role in the development of the child. So this is only the fact that the mother of the child has the opportunity to qualitatively improve his emotional development.

The discovery of the fact of intrauterine personality formation was promoted by a number of discoveries, among which was the discovery of the existence of a system of communication between the mother and the newborn child, called “ affection” .

What is important, the discoveries made in a new way explain the role of the presence of a loving husband next to a pregnant woman. For her, communicating with him is a constant source of emotional support and a sense of security, which, in turn, is transmitted to the child.

Returning to the topic of psychological trauma of birth from the point of view of these discoveries, it becomes obvious that it is very important for a child to be born in a warm, sincere atmosphere that gives rise to feelings of safety and security.

However, all these discoveries do not mean that the child in the womb has a fully formed emotional and mental base. He cannot understand the subtleties of the conversation of adults, but he understands this conversation in terms of emotions, capturing the slightest change, not limited to strong and pronounced, such as love or hate, but also recognizing such emotions as insecurity or duality of feelings.

The baby in the womb is a very capable student. One of the main sources of information for him are his feelings. For example, if the mother of a child smokes, he experiences negative emotions (presumably this is due to the fact that he lacks oxygen during smoking). And even if the mother simply thinks about smoking, the child will experience anxiety (rapid heartbeat, increased activity) - the so-called conditioned reflex to a negative event.

Another source of information for a child is speech. It is no secret that each person has an individual rhythm of speech. And it is proved that the source of the picture of a man’s speech is the speech of his mother, the sound of which he copied. Moreover, the learning process begins in the womb, this is proved by the fact that the child moves in the rhythm of her speech. An infant 4–5 months old has a well-developed ear and can distinguish not only the voices of the parents, but also music. If calm music is turned on, even a rather restless child will calm down; in the case of fast and loud music, a dramatic change in fetal behavior will be observed in the direction of increasing its activity.

Dr. Dominique Purpura , a professor at Albert Einstein Medical College, who is the head of the brain research section of the National Institutes of Health, indicated the exact time of the child's personality formation in the womb — this is the period between the 28th and 32nd weeks of pregnancy. From this period, information enters the brain and is transmitted to individual parts of the body. A few weeks later, the baby’s brain signals become more pronounced and can be fixed with instruments that allow you to determine when the child is sleeping and when it is awake.

The birth of a child dramatically introduces new emotions and new impressions into his worldview, often not always pleasant. And how the child will behave in the first minutes after birth will, in most cases, show what his behavior will be in later life. Thus, a child born and caught up in the hands of an obstetrician may turn around, or may remain in the fetal position he is accustomed to in his womb. In the first case, the child will be active and active, and in the second - will be psychologically closed and suspended. To alleviate the crisis of transition from the prenatal to the perinatal period of development, it is necessary to create conditions at birth and immediately after it close to what the child had in the last nine months: put it immediately after birth on the mother's tummy, then in a bath with warm water and t dd

The psychology of age development is a branch of knowledge that considers the dynamics of age-related changes. In the psychology of age development, there are 2 types of development: preformed , unformed .

The preformed type of development is development in which the stages that the body passes during a certain period of time, for example, embryonic development, are preset and fixed.

A non-reformed type is a type of development where the process is not from the inside, but from the outside.

The development occurs due to the influence of the environment on the body.

An evolutionary change in the psyche is a long and rather slow development, as a result of which steady changes in the organism occur, the vocabulary of a person is enriched.

Revolutionary changes are quick, deep transformations of the human psyche and behavior. Occur during age crises, accompany them.

Situational changes are quick, but not sufficiently stable changes in the psyche and behavior that require reinforcement. There are organized and unorganized.

Organized - suggest the development of the provision of educational influence on a person, are carried out in the system and are targeted.

Unorganized situational changes are, as a rule, random in nature and do not involve systematic work on training and education.

In situational changes, psychotrauding circumstances play a special role, which leave a significant imprint on personality change.

Child development is an unformed type of development. This is a qualitatively peculiar process, which is determined by the form of development of society and the child directly surrounding society, in which the child is.

The driving forces of mental development are the factors that determine the progressive development of the child. These factors are the causes and contain the stimulating energy sources of development.

The conditions of mental development are internal and external constantly acting factors that influence the development process, directing its course and shaping the dynamics and the final result.

The laws of mental development are general and particular laws that can be used to describe mental development and based on which you can control the course of mental development.

L. S. Vygotsky noted that different aspects of a child’s mental activity develop unevenly. For example, speech development occurs rapidly in early childhood, and logical thinking develops during adolescence.

The law of metamorphosis of child development is that development is not limited to quantitative

changes in the psyche, it is a chain of qualitative changes.

The law of cyclicality is that age as a stage of development is a specific cycle, each cycle has its own content and its own pace.

On the problem of developing the opinions of most foreign and domestic psychologists differ. Many foreign psychologists, for example, J. Piaget , believe that learning is oriented towards development, that is, it is necessary to proceed from learning that a child masters information in accordance with the level of development of cognitive processes in a given period of time. Accordingly, you need to give the child what he can "take."

In domestic psychology, a look at the problem of the ratio of learning and development is fundamentally different. L. S. Vygotsky spoke about the leading role of learning in the process of development, that is, he noted that learning should not be dragged along at the tail of development. It should be somewhat ahead of him.

Education Vygotsky characterized as a social moment of development, having a universal character.

He also put forward a theory (idea) about the existence of a level of actual development and a zone of proximal development.

The concept of development of L. S. Vygotsky understood the process of the formation of a person or a person and the emergence at each stage of development of new qualities specific to a person and prepared by the course of previous development. It should be noted that these qualities exist in finished form at the previous stages of development, there are prerequisites for them.

The founder of the study of the evolutionary development of all living things and specifically of a person is C. Darwin . Based on his teachings, a law was developed that ontogenesis is a brief repetition of phylogenesis. J. Hall transferred this law to a person, to his psyche. A person during his life repeats all stages of human development. Within the framework of this, F. Getcheson , V. Stern and other scientists worked.

F. Gotcheson used the method of obtaining food as the main criterion. He believed that the child during life goes through all stages of human development: gathering, farming, animal domestication, housing construction and the trade and economic stage.

V. Shtern was guided by the mastery of a certain cultural level. He noted that a person at the initial stage of his development resembles a mammal, at the next stage a monkey, then he masters cultural skills and by the beginning of his studies becomes a cultural person. This theory was criticized for inhumanely forcing a person to repeat all stages of the development of human society. She was also criticized for being speculative, that is, based on external similarity. However, the theory of recapitulation is the first attempt to create an evolutionary theory.

Representatives of the regulatory approach were N. Geisel and William Termel .

On the basis of many years of research into the characteristics of children's social adaptation, their speech development and a number of other indicators, psychological portraits of separate age groups were compiled and standard indicators of mental development were determined using special equipment, movies, videos, and an impermeable Heisel mirror.

Termel researched kids geeks. Proponents of the normative approach initiated the formation of child psychology as a normative discipline. They traced the dynamics of the development of the mental functions of a child from early childhood to adolescence, to adulthood.

Of great interest is the theory of the three stages of the child development of K. Buhler . In fact, Buhler's theory is a peculiar hierarchy of individual components of child development. In the first stage there is instinct , in the second stage there is training (skills) , the third stage is intellect . Within this theory, a combination of internal biological factors (inclinations) and external conditions is found.

K. Buhler believed that decisive for human development are:

1) the complication of interaction with the environment;

2) the development of affective processes;

3) brain maturation.

By the development of affective processes, Buhler understood the emergence and experience of human pleasure.

At the first stage, the pleasure comes from the completed activity. For example, the baby gets pleasure after feeding.

At the second stage (training) the child gets pleasure in the process of activity. For example, a child gets pleasure from a role-playing game.

At the third stage (intellect) a person gets pleasure from anticipating activity. The main trend: in the development process, there is a transition of pleasure from the end to the beginning of the action.

The theory of Buhler was criticized for the groundlessness of the steps described and the criterion for their selection. In fact, studying the development in the framework of zoopsychology, Buhler transferred it and described the child development by the same principle.

Gradually, in the process of development, socialization of the individual takes place. This process has been experimentally studied by many psychologists.

Socialization - the process and the result of the assimilation and active reproduction by the individual of social experience, carried out in communication and activities. Socialization can occur both under conditions of a spontaneous impact on the individual of various circumstances of life, sometimes with the nature of multidirectional factors, and under conditions of education and upbringing of a purposeful, pedagogically organized, planned process and result of human development, carried out in the interests of his and / or society, to which he belongs. Education is the leading and decisive beginning of socialization.

The concept of " socialization" was introduced into social psychology in the 40-50s. XX century. in the works of A. Bandura , J. Coleman, and others. In different scientific schools this concept has received a different interpretation: in neo-cheevism it is interpreted as a social doctrine; in the school of symbolic interactionism - as a result of social interaction; in humanistic psychology - as self-actualization.

The phenomenon of socialization is multidimensional, and each of these areas focuses attention on one of the sides of the phenomenon under study. In Russian psychology, the problem of socialization was developed in the framework of the dispositional concept of regulation of social behavior, which presents a hierarchy of dispositions synthesizing the system of regulation of social behavior depending on the degree of inclusion in society.

The formation of value benchmarks is also a complex process, depending on many factors, both internal and external. Value orientations are a reflection in the human mind of values ​​recognized by him as vital strategic goals and common ideological orientations. Понятие ценностных ориентаций было введено в послевоенной социальной психологии как аналог философского понятия ценностей, однако четкое концептуальное разграничение между этими понятиями до сих пор отсутствует. Хотя ориентиры рассматривали как индивидуальные формы репрезентации надындивидуальных ценностей, понятия ценностей и ценностных ориен-таций различались либо по параметру «общее-индивидуальное», либо по параметру «реально действующее – рефлексивно сознаваемое» в зависимости от того, признавалось ли наличие индивидуально-психологических форм существования ценностей, отличных от их присутствия в сознании. Сейчас более принятым является восходящее к К. Клакхону определение ценностей как аспекта

motivation, and value orientations - as subjective concepts of values ​​or types of attitudes (social attitudes).

The basis of mental development in early childhood is made up of new types of perception and cognitive actions that form in a child. This period is full of impressions. The child actively learns the world, and the most vivid images are deposited in his memory. Therefore, a highly developed and rich fantasy. Children love to listen to fairy tales, they develop their imagination. A little later, they themselves try to write them. They reproduce the image they once saw themselves, without realizing it, while thinking that they compose themselves. Children's works are built entirely in memory, but the child combines images, introduces new ones.

At this time, the child begins to form a character, that is, some traits of character. In psychology, character is determined as follows.