24. Temperament

24.1. The concept of temperament

Temperament is one of the most significant properties of the individual. Interest in this issue arose more than two and a half thousand years ago. It was caused by the obviousness of the existence of individual differences, which are due to the peculiarities of the biological and physiological structure and development of the organism, as well as the peculiarities of social development, the uniqueness of social connections and contacts. First of all, temperament belongs to biologically determined personality structures. Temperament determines the presence of many mental differences between people, including the intensity and stability of emotions, emotional impressionability, pace and energy of action, as well as a variety of other dynamic characteristics.

Despite the fact that there have been repeated and constant attempts to investigate the problem of temperament, this problem still belongs to the category of controversial and still unsolved problems of modern psychological science. Today there are many approaches to the study of temperament. However, with all the existing diversity of approaches, most researchers recognize that temperament is the biological foundation on which a personality is formed as a social being, and personality traits caused by temperament are the most stable and long-lasting.

B. M. Teplov gives the following definition of temperament: “Temperament refers to the totality of mental features characteristic of a person, associated with emotional excitability, that is, the speed at which feelings arise, on the one hand, and their strength, on the other” (Teplov B. M ., 1985). Thus, temperament has two components - activity and emotionality.

Activity behavior characterizes the degree of vigor, swiftness, speed, or, conversely, sluggishness and inertia. In turn, emotionality characterizes the flow of emotional processes, determining the sign (positive or negative) and modality (joy, grief, fear, anger, etc.).

Since ancient times, it was decided to distinguish four main types of temperament: choleric, sanguine, melancholic and phlegmatic. These main types of temperament primarily differ in the dynamics of the onset and intensity of emotional states. So, for the choleric type, quickly arising and strong feelings are characteristic, for the sanguine one - quickly arising but weak feelings, for melancholic ones - slowly arising but strong feelings, for phlegmatic - slowly arising and weak feelings. In addition, choleric and sanguine temperaments are characterized by quickness of movements, general mobility and a tendency to a strong external expression of feelings (in movements, speech, facial expressions, etc.). For melancholic and phlegmatic temperaments, on the contrary, slow movements and a weak expression of feelings are characteristic.

Types of temperament from the point of view of everyday psychology can be characterized as follows.

Choleric - a fast man, sometimes even impetuous, with strong, quickly catching on feelings, pronounced in speech, facial expressions, gestures; often - hot-tempered, prone to violent emotional reactions.

A sanguine person is a quick, agile person who gives an emotional response to all impressions; his feelings are directly expressed in external behavior, but they are not strong and easily replace one another.

Melancholic - a person who is distinguished by a relatively small variety of emotional experiences, but a great strength and duration of them. He does not respond to everything, but when he responds, he feels very strong, although he does not express much of his feelings.

A phlegmatic person is a slow, balanced and calm person who is hard to emotionally touch and impossible to ruffle. Feelings of his appearance almost never manifest.

However, it would be a mistake to think that all people can be divided into four main temperaments. Only a few are pure representatives of these types; for most, we see a combination of the individual features of one temperament with some features of another. The same person in different situations and in relation to different spheres of life and activity can detect the features of different temperaments.

You should pay attention to the fact that temperament does not determine the ability and talent of the person. Great abilities can occur equally often at any temperament. Among the outstanding talents in any field of activity you can find people with different temperaments. If we take, for example, the greatest Russian writers, then A. Pushkin we can note the bright features of the choleric temperament, A. Herzen - the sanguine temperament, I. V. Gogol and V. A. Zhukovsky - melancholic, And I. A. Krylov and I. A Goncharova - phlegmatic. Two great Russian commanders - A.V. Suvorov and M.I. Ku-

Aces - in terms of temperament form a sharp contrast. Suvorov was a typical choleric person, and Kutuzov observed features characteristic of phlegmatic temperament, for example, slowness of movements, calmness, composure.

You can not ask the question about which of the temperaments is better. Each of them has its positive and negative sides. Passion, activity, choleric energy, mobility, liveliness and responsiveness of the sanguine person, the depth and stability of the melancholic feelings, calmness and lack of haste phlegmatic - these are examples of those personality traits that are associated with individual temperaments. At the same time, with any of the temperaments, there may be a danger of developing undesirable personality traits. For example, choleric temperament can make a person restrained, sharp, prone to constant "explosions." Sanguine temperament can lead to levity, the tendency to scatter, lack of depth and stability of feelings. With a melancholic temperament, a person may develop excessive closure, a tendency to immerse himself completely in his own experiences, excessive shyness. Phlegmatic temperament can make a person sluggish, inert, indifferent to all the impressions of life.

Studies of the problems of temperament have their own history. Consider some of the main stages of the formation of modern ideas about temperament.

24.2. Overview of Temperament Teachings

The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460–377 BC) is considered to be the creator of the theory of temperament. He argued that people differ in the ratio of the four main “body juices” - blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. The ratio of these “body juices” in Greek was designated by the word “Krassis”, which was later replaced with the Latin word temperamentum - “proportionality”, “correct measure”. Based on the teachings of Hippocrates, another famous antiquity physician Claudius Galen (c. 130-c. 200) developed a typology of temperaments, which he outlined in the famous treatise “De temperamentum”. According to his teaching, the type of temperament depends on the predominance of one of the juices in the body. They were allocated 13 types of temperament, then they were reduced to four. These four names of types of temperament are well known to you:

sanguine (from the Latin. sanguis - blood), phlegmatic (from gerch. phlegma - mucus, sputum), choleric (from the Greek. chole - bile) and melancholic (from the Greek. melas chole - black bile). This concept has a huge impact on scientists pa for many centuries. This is confirmed by the fact that, to date, the names of the types of temperament proposed by Galen are the most common.

In the following centuries, researchers, observing a significant variety of behavior, which coincides with differences in physique and physiological functions, tried to streamline and somehow group these differences. As a result, numerous concepts and typologies of temperaments have arisen. The basis

556 • Part IV. Mental personality traits

these concepts were laid a variety of personality traits. In a number of concepts, temperament properties were understood as hereditary or innate and were associated with individual differences in the characteristics of the constitution. Such typologies are called constitutional typologies. Among them, the most widespread was the typology proposed by E. Krechmer, which in 1921. published his famous work "Body Structure and Character." His main idea is that people with a certain body type have certain mental characteristics. E. Kretschmer carried out many measurements of human body parts, which allowed him to identify four constitutional types: leptosomatic, picnic, athletic, dysplastic (Fig. 24.1).

1. Leptosomatic is characterized by a fragile physique, tall, flat chest , narrow shoulders, long and thin lower limbs.

2. Picnic - a person with pronounced fatty tissue, overly obese, characterized by small or medium height, spread out body with a large belly and a round head on a short neck.

3. Athletic - a man with developed muscles, strong physique, characterized by high or medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips.

4. Dysplastic - a person with a shapeless, wrong structure. Individuals of this type are characterized by various physique deformations (for example, overgrowth, disproportionate physique). Krechmer relates three types of temperament that he identifies to these types of body structure: schizotymic, ixotymic, and cyclothymic. A shizotimik has an asthenic physique, he is closed, prone to *** moods, stubborn, not inclined to change attitudes and attitudes, with difficulty

Fig. 24.1. Constitutional types by E. Krechmer

R

adapts to the environment. In contrast, Iksotimik has an athletic physique. This is a calm, unimpressive person with restrained gestures and facial expressions, with a low flexibility of thinking, often petty. A pycnic physique has a cyclothymic, its emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, it easily contacts people and is realistic in thinking.

Theory Krechmera received the most widespread in Europe. In the United States in the 40s. XX century. The concept of the temperament of William Sheldon became very popular. At the heart of his concept is the assumption that the body and temperament are two interconnected parameters of a person. According to the author, the structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function. Sheldon proceeded from the hypothesis of the existence of basic body types, describing which he borrowed terms from embryology.

He singled out three types: 1) endomorphic (mainly internal organs are formed from the endoderm); 2) mesomorphic (muscle tissue is formed from the mesoderm); 3) ectomorphic (skin and nervous tissue develop from the ectoderm). People with an endomorphic type tend to have a relatively weak physique with an excess of adipose tissue, a slender and strong body, great physical strength are characteristic of the mesomorphic type, and a fragile physique, a flat chest and long, limbs with weak muscles are characteristic of the ectomorphic type. According to Sheldon, certain types of temperaments correspond to these body types, named by him depending on the function of certain organs of the body: viscerotonia (from Lat. Glhset - entrails), somatotonia (from Greek. Kota - body) and cerebrotonia (from Lat. Segembit - brain) . Sheldon calls individuals with a predominance of a certain body type, respectively, viscerotonic, co-mathotonic, and cerebrotonic, and believes that each person has all the named groups of properties. However, the differences between people are determined by the predominance of certain properties (Table 24.1).

In modern psychological science, the majority of constitutional concepts are subject to sharp criticism because of the underestimation of the role of the environment and social conditions in the formation of the psychological properties of a person. Concepts based on consideration of the functioning of the nervous system, which plays a dominant and controlling role in the body, deserve more serious attention. The theory of the connection of certain general properties of nervous processes with types of temperament was proposed by IP Pavlov and was further developed and experimentally confirmed in the works of his followers. The studies carried out by Pavlov are deservedly regarded as the most significant for understanding the physiological basis of temperament.

Thanks to Pavlov's research in Russian psychology, ideas about temperament as a personality trait, largely due to the innate characteristics of a person, were formed. For example, B. G. Ananiev believed that the basic properties of a person as a representative of the Noto 5151 type were manifested not only in the makings, but also in temperament.

The greatest contribution to the development of the theory of temperament in Russian psychology was made by B. M. Teplov. His works devoted to studying the properties of temperament, determined not only the modern view on the problem of temperament, but also formed the basis for the development of further experimental studies of temperament. Heat attributed to the properties of temperament resistant mental

Table 24.1

Differences in the types of temperaments (by U. Sheldon)

properties that characterize the dynamics of mental activity. He explained the individual characteristics of temperament by the different levels of development of certain temperament properties. The following are among the most significant temperament properties:

1) Emotional excitability. This property was understood as the ability to respond to very weak external and internal influences.

2) The excitability of attention - this property of temperament determines the auxiliary functions of the individual psyche. It consists in the ability notice an extremely small change in the intensity of the stimulus.

3) The power of emotion. The main function of this property Teplov saw in the "expr-tion of activity" depending on the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the motives. (Modern psychologists call this property the intensity and modality of emotional manifestations.)

4) Anxiety. By anxiety, Teplev understood emotional excitability in a threatening situation. Moreover, he basically shared anxiety and emotional excitability in normal conditions. One of the reasons for this opinion is that emotional excitability does not depend on the strength of the stimulus, and anxiety, on the contrary, is directly dependent on it.

5) Reactivity of involuntary movements. The function of this property is to increase the intensity of the pressure reactions to situations and stimuli that are directly acting at the moment.

6) Activity volitional purposeful activity. This property, but Teplov's opinion, manifests itself in an increase in the activity of the device by transforming the situation in accordance with the goal.

7) Plasticity - rigidity. The function of this property is to adapt to the changing requirements of the activity.

8) Resistance. This property consists in the ability to resist all internal and external conditions that weaken or inhibit the activity started.

9) Subactivation. Teplov saw the function of this property in strengthening the degree of mediation of activity by subjective images and concepts.

From the above characteristics of the properties of temperament, proposed by Teplov, we should draw two main conclusions. First, the properties of temperament are manifested in the dynamics of mental processes and the degree of activity of the individual. Secondly, temperament is closely related to activity. These provisions were developed in subsequent studies of domestic scientists.

The well-known psychophysiologist V.M. Rusalov, based on the concept of the properties of the nervous system, proposed in the late 1980s. their interpretation of the properties of temperament. This concept deserves attention, since it took into account the achievements of modern physiology. Rusalov, proceeding from the theory of the functional system of P.K. for the breadth or narrowness of afferent synthesis (the degree of tension in the interaction of the organism with the environment), the ease of switching from one program of behavior to another, the speed of execution of the current program of behavior and sensitivity to the discrepancy between the real result of an action and its acceptor.

In accordance with this, the traditional psychophysiological assessment of temperament has changed and instead of two parameters - activity and sensitivity - four components have already been identified: ergicity (endurance), plasticity, speed and emotionality (sensitivity). All these components of temperament, according to Rusalov, are biologically and genetically determined. So, temperament depends on the properties of the nervous system, and they, in turn, should be understood as the main characteristics of 4-functional systems that provide integrative, analytical and synthetic activity of the brain, the entire nervous system as a whole.

From the point of view of this concept, temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense of the word that its properties are neither completely innate nor dependent on the environment. They, in the words of the author of this concept, represent a "systemic generalization" of genetically given individual biological properties of a person, which, "being included in a variety of activities, are gradually transformed and form, regardless of the content of the activity itself, a generalized, qualitatively new, individually stable system of invariant properties." (Rusalov V.M., 1979).

In accordance with the two main types of human activity - objective activity and communication - each of the distinguished properties of temperament should be considered separately, since it is assumed that in these types of activity they manifest themselves in different ways. So, according to Rusalov, the psychological characteristics of temperament are not the properties of the nervous system per se or their combination, but typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties generate. For example, activity, as a property of temperament, in cognitive mental processes is manifested in the extent to which a person is able to concentrate on a certain object or its aspect. In turn, the pace is manifested in how quickly the corresponding mental processes proceed.

Excitability, inhibition and switchability characterize the rapidity of the onset and termination of a particular cognitive process or its switching from one object to another. For example, some people are slow to engage in intellectual activity or switch from one topic to another. Others quickly memorize or recall information. It should also be borne in mind here that these features do not determine the abilities of people.

Most authors largely associate the properties of temperament and their manifestations with the physiological characteristics of the organism. Let us and we get acquainted with the point of view that has developed in Russian psychology regarding the physiological foundations of temperament.

24.3. Physiological foundations of temperament

I.P. Pavlov, studying the features of the development of conditioned reflexes in dogs, drew attention to individual differences in their behavior and in the course of conditioned reflex activity. These differences were manifested primarily in such aspects of behavior as the speed and accuracy of the formation of conditional

reflexes, as well as in the features of their attenuation. This circumstance made it possible to put forward a hypothesis that these differences cannot be explained only by a variety of experimental situations and that they are based on some fundamental properties of nervous processes. According to Pavlov, these properties include the power of excitation, inhibition, their balance and mobility.

Pavlov distinguished between the power of arousal and the power of inhibition, considering them to be two independent properties of the nervous system. The strength of arousal reflects the performance of the nerve cell. It manifests itself in functional endurance, that is, in the ability of the nervous system to withstand prolonged (or short-term, but strong) excitement, without passing into the opposite state of inhibition. The force of inhibition is understood as the efficiency of the nervous system during the implementation of inhibition and manifests itself in the ability to form various inhibitory conditioned reactions, such as extinction and differentiation.

Speaking about the balance of nervous processes, Pavlov had in mind the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition. A person is unbalanced when the strength of one of these processes exceeds the strength of the other. The fourth property of the nervous system - the mobility of nervous processes - manifests itself in the rapidity of the transition from one nervous process to another. This property is manifested in the ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. A measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active one, and vice versa, the opposite of mobility is the inertia of nervous processes. It is generally accepted that the nervous system is the more inert, the more time or effort it takes to move from one process to another.

The properties of nervous processes highlighted by Pavlov can form certain combinations that determine the so-called mud of the nervous system, or the type of higher nervous activity. This type consists of a set of basic properties of the nervous system characteristic of an individual - strength, balance and mobility, the ratio of excitation and inhibition processes. According to Pavlov, there are four main types of the nervous system, which are close to the types of temperament identified by Hippocrates. Due to the differences in the manifestation of the strength of the nervous processes, strong and weak types are distinguished, which, in turn, can be divided into balanced and unbalanced. In this case, the unbalanced type is characterized by the predominance of excitement over inhibition. Finally, strong balanced types are divided into mobile and inert.

The types of the nervous system identified by Pavlov, not only in terms of quantity, but also in terms of their main characteristics, correspond to four classical types of temperament: strong, balanced, mobile type - sanguine; strong, balanced, inert type - phlegmatic; a strong, unbalanced type with a predominance of excitement - choleric; the weak type is melancholic.

Thus, by the type of the nervous system Pavlov understood the innate and relatively weakly subject to changes under the influence of the environment and education of the properties of the nervous system. These properties of the nervous system form

the physiological basis of temperament, which is a mental manifestation of the general type of the nervous system.

The role of Pavlov's research in the development of modern science is extremely great. However, his discovery of the properties of the nervous system and the typology of the nervous system developed on this basis served as the basis for the assertion that all human behavior, like the behavior of an animal, can be explained from the standpoint of physiology. This point of view is strong in our time and is often found among physiologists and doctors, but it is not true. Human behavior is very complex and is determined not only by innate characteristics, but also by the conditions of the social situation, as well as by the characteristics of upbringing.

Nevertheless, Pavlov’s typology became the source of a huge number of experiments and research in this area. Many physiologists and psychologists conducted further research on animals. In the 50s. laboratory studies of adult behavior were undertaken. As a result of these studies, conducted under the leadership of B. M. Teplov, and then with V. D. Nebylitsyn, Pavlov’s typology was supplemented with new elements, numerous techniques were developed to study the properties of the human nervous system, two more were experimentally identified and described. properties of nerve processes: lability and dynamism. The lability of the nervous system is manifested in the rate of occurrence and termination of the nervous processes. The essence of the dynamism of the nervous processes is the ease and speed of the formation of positive (dynamic excitation) and inhibitory (dynamic braking) conditioned reflexes.

Currently, science has accumulated a lot of facts about the properties of the nervous system, and as they accumulate, researchers attach less and less importance to the tins of the nervous system, especially their magic number - “4”, which appears in almost all works of Pavlov on temperament. Everyone has a well-defined type of nervous system, the manifestations of which, that is, the peculiarities of temperament, constitute an important side of the individual psychological differences manifested in activity.

24.4. Psychological characteristics of temperament and personality traits

Specific manifestations of the type of temperament are diverse. The characteristics of a person’s temperament are not only manifested in his behavior, but also determine the peculiarities of the dynamics of cognitive activity and the sphere of feelings, are reflected in the motives and actions of a person, as well as in the nature of intellectual activity, features of speech, etc.

Currently, we are able to give a complete psychological characteristic of all types of temperament. To compile psychological characteristics

traditional four types usually use the basic properties of temperament. Many of these properties were disclosed in the works of B. M. Teplov and his students, and then received further development in the research of Russian scientists. In the course of these studies, the names of some properties proposed by Teplovym have changed, and new properties have also been discovered. For example, the property of temperament, called Thermal "emotional excitability," in the psychological literature is often called sensitivity (sensitivity), and the reactivity of involuntary movements caused by an external influence, reactivity. The names and other properties of temperament have changed. At the same time, extraversion-introversion began to be attributed to the properties of temperament. These concepts determine what mainly depends on the reactions and human activity - from external impressions that arise at the moment (extraversion), or from images, ideas and thoughts associated with the past and future (introversion).

Considering the basic properties of temperament, J. Strelau gives the following psychological characteristics of the main classical types of temperament.

Sanguine. A person with increased reactivity, but at the same time the activity and reactivity of him are balanced. He vividly, excitedly responds to everything that attracts his attention, has lively facial expressions and expressive movements. For insignificant reasons, he laughs loudly, and an unimportant fact can irritate him greatly. His face is easy to guess his mood, attitude to the subject or person. He has a high threshold of sensitivity, so he does not notice very weak sounds and light stimuli. Possessing increased activity and being very energetic and efficient, he is actively taken for a new business and can work for a long time without getting tired. Able to quickly concentrate, disciplined, if desired, can restrain the manifestation of their feelings and involuntary reactions. Fast movements, flexibility of mind, resourcefulness, fast pace of speech, fast inclusion in new work are inherent in it. High plasticity is manifested in the variability of feelings, moods, interests and aspirations. The sanguine person easily converges with new people, quickly gets used to new demands and circumstances, effortlessly not only switches from one job to another, but also retrains, acquiring new skills. As a rule, he is more responsive to external impressions than to subjective images and ideas about the past and the future, that is, he is an extrovert.

Choleric. Like a sanguine person, it is characterized by low sensitivity, high reactivity and activity. But choleric reactivity clearly prevails over activity, so it is unbridled, unrestrained, impatient, quick-tempered. It is less plastic and more inert than a sanguine person. From here - the big stability of aspirations and interests, the big persistence, difficulties in switching of attention are possible; he is rather an extrovert.

Phlegmatic has a high activity, significantly prevailing over low reactivity, low sensitivity and emotionality. Its hard to laugh or sadden. When laughing around loudly, he can remain cool; with big troubles stays calm. Usually he has poor facial expressions, movements are inexpressive and slow, as well as speech. Om is unintelligent, hardly switches his attention and adapts to the new environment,

slowly rebuilds skills and habits. At the same time he is energetic and efficient. Differs in patience, endurance, self-control. As a rule, it is difficult to get along with new people, poorly responding to external impressions. By its psychological essence, it is an introvert.

Melancholic A man with high sensitivity and low reactivity. Hypersensitivity with great inertness leads to the fact that a minor occasion can cause him to tears, he is overly sensitive, painfully sensitive. His mimicry and movements are inexpressive, his voice is quiet, his movements are poor. Usually he is unsure of himself, timid, the slightest difficulty causes him to give up. Melancholic non-energy, nsnastoychiv, easy to get tired and not working. It is characterized by easily distracted and unstable attention, a slowed pace of all mental processes. Most melancholic people are introverts.

In modern psychological science there is a firm conviction that the type of temperament in humans is innate and, in general, characterizes the peculiarities of the dynamics of nervous processes. But what properties of his innate organization he depends on is not currently known.

Since the characteristics of temperament determine the dynamics of mental processes, it could be assumed that temperament determines the success of human activity. However, it has been established that if an activity proceeds under conditions that can be defined as normal, then there is no relationship between the level of achievement, i.e., the final result of actions, and the characteristics of temperament. Regardless of the degree of mobility or reactivity of an individual in a normal, non-stressful situation, the results of the activity as a whole will be the same, since the level of achievement will depend mainly on other factors, and not on the characteristics of temperament.

At the same time, studies establishing this pattern show that, depending on the characteristics of temperament, the way the activity itself is carried out changes. Even B. M. Teplov drew attention to the fact that, depending on the characteristics of temperament, people differ not in the final result of actions, but in the way they achieve results. Developing this idea, domestic psychologists conducted a series of studies to establish the relationship between the method of performing actions and the characteristics of temperament. In these studies, an individual style of activity was considered as a way to achieve results or a way to solve a specific task, mainly due to the type of nervous system. The research results of the overwhelming majority of authors, regardless of the characteristics of the studied groups and experimental situations in which the method of performing actions typical for these individuals was studied, show that it is the type of nervous activity, and above all the strength and mobility of the nervous processes that has a significant impact on the formation of a certain style activities.

For example, persons with a predominance of excitement in the first stage show increased activity, but at the same time make many mistakes. Then they develop their own style of activity, and the number of errors decreases. On the other hand, individuals with a predominance of inhibition at first, as a rule, have little

they are active, their activities are unproductive, but then they form their own way of doing activities, and their productivity increases dramatically.

In conclusion, it should again be noted that there are no good or bad types of temperament. The special mobility (reactivity) of a sanguine person can bring an additional effect if the work requires a change in the objects of communication, an occupation, and a frequent transition from one rhythm of life to another. People with a weak nervous system — melancholic — are more motivated to perform simpler actions than others. Therefore, they are less tired and annoyed by their repetition. Moreover, since people with a weak nervous system are more sensitive to external influences, because of. react quickly to them, then, as shown by the research of E. P. Il'ina, the majority of highly skilled sprint athletes have this type of nervous system. At the same time, athletes, whose activity takes place against the background of excessive emotional stress, for example, weightlifters, for the most part will have a strong nervous system.

Therefore, it is not only impossible, but it is also meaningless to strive to change the temperament. It seems more appropriate to take into account the properties of the temperament of a particular person when organizing activities.

test questions

1. Describe temperament as a personality trait. Give the definition of temperament by B. M. Teplov.

2. Tell us about the main types of temperament (choleric, sanguine, melancholic, phlegmatic).

3. What is the essence of the teachings about the Hippocratic temperament?

4. What do you know about the E. Kretschmer temperament typology?

5. Tell us about the concept of body types and temperament W. Sheldon.

6. Tell us about the study of the problem of temperament in the works of IP Pavlov.

7. What do you know about temperament researches by B. M. Teplov?

8. What are the main characteristics and properties of temperament according to B. M. Teplov?

9. What do you know about the concept of temperament of V. M. Rusalov?

10. What is the physiological basis of temperament?

11. Tell us about the psychological characteristics of different types of temperament.

12. What are the features of the relationship of temperament and success of human activity?