Lecture
The concept of character. Definition of character. Characteristics as a mental phenomenon. Character as a lifetime education. Patterns of character formation. Concept of character traits. The classification of character traits. The manifestation of character through activity, attitude to other people, interests, emotionality and will. Motivational and instrumental personality traits.
Theoretical and experimental approaches to the study of character. Typology of character as a central problem of experimental research and theoretical searches. Various areas of "characterology." Concepts of K. Leonhard and A. E. Lichko. Classification of character types by E. Fromm. Typology of character according to K. Jung. The relationship of character and temperament.
Formation of character. Features of character formation in childhood. Sentimental period for character formation. The role of the interaction of the child and the adult in the formation of character. Features of character formation in preschool and school age. Transformation of character throughout life. Self-education. The role of labor in the formation of character.
Usually, when they try to assess or characterize a particular person, they talk about his character (from the Greek. Naga ^ er - print, chasing). In psychology, the concept of "character" means a set of individual mental properties that take shape in activity and manifest themselves in typical ways of activity for a particular person and forms of behavior.
The main feature of character as a mental phenomenon is that character always manifests itself in activity, in the attitude of a person towards the reality surrounding him and people. For example, the main character traits can be found in the features of the activity that a person prefers to engage in. Some people prefer the most difficult and difficult activities, it is a pleasure for them to seek and overcome obstacles; others choose simpler activities. For some, it is essential what results they did with this or that work, if they managed to surpass others, while for others it may be indifferent, and they are content with coping with the work no worse than others, achieving mediocre quality. Therefore, when determining the character of a person, they say not that such and such a person showed courage, truthfulness, frankness, but that this person is brave, truthful, frank, that is, the named characteristics of a person’s actions are attributed to the person himself. However, not all features of a person can be considered characteristic, but only essential and stable ones. For example, even very cheerful people may experience a feeling of sadness, but this will not make them whiners and pessimists.
Character is a lifetime education and can transform throughout life. Formation of character is closely connected with the thoughts, feelings and motivations of a person. Therefore, as a certain way of life of a person is formed, his character is also formed. Consequently, lifestyle, social conditions and specific life circumstances play an important role in shaping character.
Formation of character occurs in different but its own characteristics and level of development of groups (family, friendly company, class, sports room ***, labor collective, etc.). Depending on which group is referent for the person and what values this group supports and cultivates, the person’s character traits develop . Under character traits understand the mental properties of a person that determine his behavior in typical circumstances. For example, courage or cowardice manifest themselves in a situation of danger, sociability or isolation in a situation of communication, etc. There are quite a lot of classifications of character traits. In the domestic psychological literature most often there are two approaches. In one case, all character traits are associated with mental processes and, therefore, distinguish volitional, emotional and intellectual traits. At the same time, volitional character traits include decisiveness, perseverance, self-control, autonomy, activity, organization, etc. The emotional traits include impulsiveness, impressionability, fervor, inertness, indifference, responsiveness, etc. Intellectual traits include deep thinking, ingenuity, resourcefulness, curiosity and others
In another case, the character traits are considered in accordance with the orientation of the individual. Moreover, the content of the orientation of the individual manifests itself in relation to people, activities, the outside world and itself. For example, the attitude of a person to the world around can manifest itself either in the presence of certain beliefs, or in lack of principle. This category of features characterizes the life orientation of an individual, that is, its material and spiritual needs, interests, beliefs, ideals, etc. The orientation of an individual determines the goals, life plans of a person, the degree of his life activity. In the formed character the leading component is the belief system. Conviction determines the long-term focus of human behavior, his inflexibility in achieving goals, confidence in the justice and the importance of the work that he performs.
Another group of character traits are those that characterize a person’s attitude to activity. This means not only the attitude of a person to a specific type of work, but also activity in general. The main condition for the formation of character - the presence of life goals. A characterless person is characterized by the absence or dispersion of goals. Character traits associated with the attitude to activities are also expressed in the sustainable interests of the person. Moreover, the superficiality and instability of interests are often associated with great imitativeness, with a lack of autonomy and integrity of a person’s personality. Conversely, the depth and content of interest
owls testify to the focus, perseverance of the individual. However, the similarity of interests does not imply the similarity of character traits. So, among people with similar interests can be cheerful and sad, modest and obsessive, selfish and altruistic. Moreover, people with a similar focus can go in completely different ways to achieve their goals, using their own, special techniques and methods. This dissimilarity also determines the specific character of the personality, which is manifested in the situation of the choice of actions or ways of behavior. From this point of view, an individual’s motivation to achieve — his need for success — can be considered as a character trait. Depending on this, some people are characterized by the choice of actions that ensure success (initiative, competitive activity, risk appetite, etc.), while others are more characteristic of simply wanting to avoid failures (deviation from risk and responsibility, manifestations of activity, initiative, etc.).
Indicative for understanding the nature can also be affection and the interests of a person associated with his leisure. They reveal new features, facets of character. For example, L. N. Tolstoy was fond of playing chess, I. P. Pavlov - playing in small towns, D. I. Mendeleev - reading adventure novels.
Another manifestation of a person’s character is his attitude towards people. At the same time, such character traits as honesty, truthfulness, justice, sociability, politeness, sensitivity, responsiveness, etc. are distinguished. A group of character traits that determine a person’s attitude to himself are no less significant. From this point of view, people most often talk about selfishness or altruism of a person. The egoist always puts personal interests above the interests of other people. Altruist, on the other hand, puts other people's interests above their own.
All personality traits can be divided into motivational and instrumental. Motivational motivate and direct activity, and instrumental give it a certain style. Character can manifest itself in the choice of the purpose of the action, that is, as a motivational personality trait. However, when the goal is defined, the character appears more in its instrumental role, i.e., determines the means of achieving the goal.
It is also necessary to emphasize that character is one of the main manifestations of personality. Therefore, personality traits may well be considered as character traits. To the number of such features, first of all, it is necessary to attribute those personality traits that determine the choice of activity objectives (more or less difficult). Here, as certain characterological features, rationality, prudence or their opposite qualities may appear. Secondly, the structure of character includes traits that manifest themselves in actions aimed at achieving the goals set: perseverance, dedication, consistency, etc. In this case, the character moves closer to the will of the person. Third, the character includes instrumental traits directly related to temperament, for example, extraversion — iroversion, calm — anxiety, restraint — impulsivity, switchability — rigidity, etc.
Attempts to investigate the character were made in ancient times. An independent theory of character was formed, a characterology that has a long history of its development. The most important problems of this teaching over the centuries have been the identification of types of character and their determination from external manifestations in order to predict human behavior in various situations.
Typology of characters, as a rule, is based on the existence of certain typical features. Typical are called features and manifestations of character, which are common and indicative of a certain group of people. Accordingly, the type of character should be understood expression in the individual character of features common to a certain group of people.
It should also be noted that all typologies of human characters, as a rule, proceed from a number of general ideas.
1. The character of a person is formed in ontogenesis relatively early and during the rest of his life manifests itself as a more or less stable personality education.
2. Combinations of personality traits that are part of a person’s character are not random.
3. Most people in accordance with their basic character traits can be divided into model groups.
It should be noted that attempts to create character typologies were not always based on scientific methods.
One such attempt is the explanation of a person’s character and actions by the date of his birth. A variety of ways to predict the fate and character of man, built on this principle, called horoscopes. Another similar attempt was to seek to link a person’s character with his name.
Physiognomy had a significant impact on character studies (from Greek. П - nature, п отоп отоп зна зна зна зна зна зна - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ). The main idea of this doctrine is based on the assumption that the psychological characteristics of a person belonging to one or another type can be established from external signs. The physiognomic system of I. K. Lavater became the most famous. He considered the study of the structure of the head, the configuration of the skull, facial expressions, etc., as the main way of knowing the human nature.
As a separate direction of characterology, we can single out an approach based on determining individual characteristics of a person according to his posture and body position. According to some psychologists, in a person’s posture his character is revealed: how he stands, how he goes, how he sits and even in what position he falls asleep.
Palmistry has a no less famous and rich history than physiognomy . Palmistry (from the Greek. Cheir - hand and manteia - divination, prophecy) - is
the system of predicting the character traits of a person and his fate on the skin relief of the palms. Scientific psychology rejects chiromancy, but the study of finger patterns in connection with heredity gave impetus to the emergence of a new branch of knowledge - dermatoglyphics. Moreover, the emergence of this direction was predetermined by scientific research. Thus, in the process of research, it was found that the formation of the pattern of the palms of each person, as well as the development of the brain, occurs on the third or fourth month of intrauterine development and is due to the same influence of the gene set of parents or chromosomal abnormalities of the fetus. Therefore, finger patterns should be considered more as an anatomical or physiological feature of the organism, and dermatoglyphics can be placed on a par with the constitutional direction of characterology, a prominent representative of which is E. Kretschmer.
Kretschmer identified and described the four most common types of body structure, or constitution, of a person. In accordance with the body type, he identified three main types of temperament. In addition, he attempted to explain the behavior of a person by associating him with a body type. As a result, he concluded that the type of body was somehow related to the propensity for mental illness. For example, manic depressive psychosis most often affects people with extremely pronounced features of a picnic. Asthenics and athletics are more prone to schizophrenic diseases. Although Kretsch-mere did not have scientifically substantiated evidence of the idea expressed by him, practical experience shows that there is a definite connection between type of character and physique, for example, people with a certain type of body structure have accentuation of corresponding character traits.
The concept of "accentuation" was introduced into psychology by K. Leonhard. His concept of "accentuated personalities" was based on the assumption of the presence of basic and additional personality traits. The main features are much smaller, but they are the core of the personality, determine its development, adaptation and mental health. With a significant severity of the main features, they leave an imprint on the person as a whole, and under unfavorable circumstances, they can destroy the whole structure of the personality.
According to Leonhard, personality accentuation is primarily manifested in communication with other people. Therefore, assessing the styles of communication, we can distinguish certain types of accentuation. The classification proposed by Leonhard includes the following types:
1. Hyperthymic type. He is characterized by extreme contact, talkativeness, expressiveness of gestures, facial expressions, pantomimics. Such a person often spontaneously deviates from the original topic of conversation. He has occasional conflicts with other people due to the lack of a serious attitude towards his official and family responsibilities. People of this type are often themselves the initiators of conflicts, but they are upset if others make comments to them about this. Of the positive features that are attractive for communication partners, people of this type are characterized by energy, thirst for activity, optimism, initiative. However, they have some repulsive features: levity, a tendency to immoral acts, increased irritability, projecting, not enough
serious about their duties. They are difficult to tolerate the conditions of rigid discipline, monotonous activity, forced loneliness.
1.Discible type. He is characterized by low contact, laconicism, the dominant pessimistic mood. Such people are usually homebody, a noisy society, rarely come into conflict with others, lead a secluded lifestyle. They highly value those who are friends with them, and are ready to obey them. They have the following personality traits that are attractive to communication partners: seriousness, good faith, and a heightened sense of justice. They also have repulsive features. This is passivity, slow thinking, slowness, individualism.
3. Cycloid type. It is characterized by fairly frequent periodic mood swings, as a result of which the manner of communicating with other people also changes. In the period of high spirits such people are sociable, and in the period of depressed - closed. During the elation, they behave like people with hyperthymic accentuation of character, and during a recession they behave like people with distyme accentuation.
4. Excitable type. This type is characterized by low contact in communication, slowness of verbal and non-verbal reactions. Often such people are boring and sullen, prone to rudeness and abuse, to conflicts in which they themselves are the active, provocative side. They are quarrelsome in a collective, powerful in a family.In an emotionally calm state, people of this type are often conscientious, tidy, like animals and small children. However, in a state of emotional arousal, they are irritable, hot-tempered, poorly control their behavior.
5. Stuck type. He is characterized by moderate sociability, tediousness, a tendency to moralizing, taciturn. In conflicts, such a person usually acts as an initiator, an active party. He seeks to achieve high performance in any business for which he undertakes, places increased demands on himself; particularly sensitive to social justice, at the same time touchy, vulnerable, suspicious, vindictive; sometimes overly arrogant, ambitious, jealous, makes unreasonable demands on relatives and subordinates at work.
6. Педантичный тип. Человек с акцентуацией такого типа редко вступает в конфликты, выступая в них скорее пассивной, чем активной стороной. На службе он ведет себя как бюрократ, предъявляя окружающим много формальных требований. Вместе с тем он с охотой уступает лидерство другим людям. Иногда он изводит домашних чрезмерными претензиями на аккуратность. Его привлекательные черты: добросовестность, аккуратность, серьезность, надежность в делах, а отталкивающие и способствующие возникновению конфликтов — формализм, зануд-ливость, брюзжание.
7. Тревожный тип. Людям с акцентуацией данного типа свойственны: низкая контактность, робость, неуверенность в себе, минорное настроение. Они редко вступают в конфликты с окружающими, играя в них в основном пассивную роль, в конфликтных ситуациях ищут поддержки и опоры. Нередко располагают следующими привлекательными чертами: дружелюбием, самокритичностью, исполнительностью. Вследствие своей беззащитности также нередко служат «козлами отпущения», мишенями для шуток.
8. Эмотивный тип. Эти люди предпочитают общение в узком кругу избранных, с которыми устанавливаются хорошие контакты, которых они понимают «с полуслова». Редко сами вступают в конфликты, играя в них пассивную роль. Обиды носят в себе, не «выплескивая» наружу. Привлекательные черты: доброта, сострадательность, обостренное чувство долга, исполнительность. Отталкивающие черты: чрезмерная чувствительность, слезливость.
9. Демонстративный тип. Этот тип акцентуации характеризуется легкостью установления контактов, стремлением к лидерству, жаждой власти и похвалы. Такой человек демонстрирует высокую приспособ***яемость к людям и вместе с тем склонность к интригам (при внешней мягкости манеры общения). Люди с акцентуацией такого типа раздражают окружающих самоуверенностью и высокими притязаниями, систематически сами провоцируют конфликты, но при этом активно защищаются. Они обладают следующими чертами, привлекательными для партнеров по общению: обходительностью, артистичностью, способностью увлечь других, неординарностью мышления и поступков. Их отталкивающие черты: эгоизм, лицемерие, хвастовство, отлынивание от работы.
10. Экзальтированный тип. Ему свойственны высокая контактность, словоохотливость, влюбчивость. Такие люди часто спорят, но не доводят дело до открытых конфликтов. В конфликтных ситуациях они бывают как активной, так и пассивной стороной. Вместе с тем лица данной типологической группы привязаны и внимательны к друзьям и близким. Они альтруистичны, имеют чувство сострадания, хороший вкус, проявляют яркость и искренность чувств. Отталкивающие черты: паникерство, подверженность сиюминутным настроениям.
11. Экстравертированный тип. Такие люди отличаются высокой контактностью, у них масса друзей, знакомых, они словоохотливы до болтливости, открыты для любой информации, редко вступают в конфликты с окружающими и обычно играют в них пассивную роль. В общении с друзьями, на работе и в семье они часто уступают лидерство другим, предпочитают подчиняться и находиться в тени. Они располагают такими привлекательными чертами, как готовность внимательно выслушать другого, сделать то, о чем просят, исполнительность. Отталкивающие особенности: подверженность влиянию, легкомыслие, необдуманность поступков, страсть к развлечениям, к участию в распространении сплетен и слухов.
12. Интровертированный тип. Его, в отличие от предыдущего, характеризует очень низкая контактность, замкнутость, оторванность от реальности, склонность к философствованию. Такие люди любят одиночество; вступают в конфликты с окружающими только при попытках бесцеремонного вмешательства в их личную жизнь. Они часто представляют собой эмоционально холодных идеалистов, относительно слабо привязанных к людям. Обладают такими привлекательными чертами, как сдержанность, наличие твердых убеждений, принципиальность. Есть у них и отталкивающие черты. Это — упрямство, ригидность мышления, упорное отстаивание своих идей. Такие люди на все имеют свою точку зрения, которая может оказаться ошибочной, резко отличаться от мнения других людей, и тем не менее они продолжают ее отстаивать, несмотря ни на что.
Позднее классификацию характеров на основе описания акцентуаций предложил А. Е. Личко. Эта классификация построена на основе наблюдений за подростками. Акцентуация характера, по Личко, — это чрезмерное усиление отдельных
черт характера, при котором наблюдаются не выходящие за пределы нормы отклонения в поведении человека, граничащие с патологией. Такие акцентуации, как временные состояния психики, чаще всего наблюдаются в подростковом и раннем юношеском возрасте. Личко объясняет этот факт так: «При действии психогенных факторов, адресующихся к "месту наименьшего сопротивления", могут наступать временные нарушения адаптации, отклонения в поведении» (Личко А. Е., 1983). При взрослении ребенка проявившиеся в детстве особенности его характера, оставаясь достаточно выраженными, теряют свою остроту, но со временем вновь могут проявиться отчетливо (особенно если возникает заболевание).
Классификация акцентуаций характеров у подростков, которую предложил Личко, выглядит следующим образом:
1. Гипертимный тип. Подростки этого типа отличаются подвижностью, общительностью, склонностью к озорству. В происходящие вокруг события .они всегда вносят много шума, любят неспокойные компании сверстников. При хороших общих способностях они обнаруживают неусидчивость, недостаточную дисциплинированность, учатся неровно. Настроение у них всегда хорошее, приподнятое. Со взрослыми — родителями и педагогами — у них нередко возникают конфликты. Такие подростки имеют много разнообразных увлечений, но эти увлечения, как правило, поверхностны и быстро проходят. Подростки гипертимпого типа часто переоценивают свои способности, бывают слишком самоуверенными, стремятся показать себя, прихвастнуть, произвести на окружающих впечатление.
2. Циклоидный тип. Характеризуется повышенной раздражительностью и склонностью к апатии. Подростки с акцентуацией характера данного типа предпочитают находиться дома одни, вместо того чтобы где-то бывать со сверстниками. Они тяжело переживают даже незначительные неприятности, на замечания реагируют крайне раздражительно. Настроение у них периодически меняется от приподнятого до подавленного (отсюда название данного типа). Периоды перепада настроений составляют примерно две-три недели.
3. Лабильный тип. Этот тип характеризуется крайней изменчивостью настроения, причем часто оно непредсказуемо. Поводы для неожиданного изменения настроения могут оказаться самыми ничтожными, например кем-то случайно оброненное слово, чей-то неприветливый взгляд. Все они способны погрузиться в уныние и мрачное расположение духа при отсутствии каких-либо серьезных неприятностей и неудач. Поведение этих подростков во многом зависит от сиюминутного настроения. Настоящее и будущее соответственно настроению может восприниматься то в светлых, то в мрачных тонах. Такие подростки, находясь в подавленном настроении, крайне нуждаются в помощи и поддержке со стороны тех, кто может поправить их настроение, способен отвлечь, приободрить. Они хорошо понимают и чувствуют отношение к ним окружающих людей.
4. Астеноневротический тип. Этот тип характеризуется повышенной мнительностью и капризностью, утомляемостью и раздражительностью. Особенно часто утомляемость проявляется при интеллектуальной деятельности.
5. Сензитивный тип. Ему свойственна повышенная чувствительность ко всему: к тому, что радует, и к тому, что огорчает или пугает. Эти подростки не любят больших компаний, подвижных игр. Они обычно застенчивы и робки при посторонних людях и потому часто воспринимаются окружающими как замкнутые.
Открыты и общительны они бывают только с теми, кто им хорошо знаком, общению со сверстниками предпочитают общение с малышами и взрослыми. Они отличаются послушанием и обнаруживают большую привязанность к родителям. В юношеском возрасте у таких подростков могут возникать трудности адаптации к кругу сверстников, а также «комплекс неполноценности». Вместе с тем у этих же подростков довольно рано формируется чувство долга, обнаруживаются высокие моральные требования к себе и к окружающим людям. Недостатки в своих способностях они часто компенсируют выбором сложных видов деятельности и повышенным усердием. Эти подростки разборчивы в нахождении для себя друзей и приятелей, обнаруживают большую привязанность в дружбе, обожают друзей, которые старше их по возрасту.
6. Психастенический тип. Такие подростки характеризуются ускоренным и ранним интеллектуальным развитием, склонностью к размышлениям и рассуждениям, к самоанализу и оценкам поведения других людей. Однако нередко они бывают больше сильны на словах, а не на деле. Самоуверенность у них сочетается с нерешительностью, а безапелляционность суждений — с поспешностью действий, предпринимаемых как раз в те моменты, когда требуется осторожность и осмотрительность.
7. Шизоидный тип. Наиболее существенная черта этого типа — замкнутость. Эти подростки не очень тянутся к сверстникам, предпочитают быть одни, находиться в компании взрослых. Они нередко демонстрируют внешнее безразличие к окружающим людям, отсутствие интереса к ним, плохо понимают состояния других людей, их переживания, не умеют сочувствовать. Их внутренний мир нередко наполнен различными фантазиями, какими-либо особенными увлечениями. Во внешних проявлениях своих чувств они достаточно сдержанны, не всегда понятны для окружающих, прежде всего для своих сверстников, которые их, как правило, не очень любят.
8. Эпилептоидный тип. Эти подростки часто плачут, изводят окружающих, особенно в раннем детстве. Такие дети, как отмечает Личко, любят мучить животных, дразнить младших, издеваться над беспомощными. В детских компаниях они ведут себя как диктаторы. Их типичные черты — жестокость, властность, себялюбие. В группе детей, которыми они управляют, такие подростки устанавливают свои жесткие, почти террористические порядки, причем их личная власть в таких группах держится в основном на добровольной покорности других детей или на страхе. В условиях жесткого дисциплинарного режима они чувствуют себя нередко на высоте, стараются угождать начальству, добиваться определенных преимуществ перед сверстниками, получить власть, установить свой диктат над окружающими.
9. Истероидный тип. Главная черта этого типа — эгоцентризм, жажда постоянного внимания к собственной особе. У подростков данного типа нередко выражена склонность к театральности, позерству, рисовке. Такие дети с большим трудом выносят, когда в их присутствии кто-то хвалит их же товарища, когда другим уделяют больше внимания, чем им самим. Для них насущной потребностью становится стремление привлекать к себе внимание окружающих, выслушивать в свой адрес восторги и похвалы. Для этих подростков характерны претензии на исключительное положение среди сверстников, и, чтобы оказать влияние на окружающих,
To attract their attention, they often appear in groups as instigators and instigators. However, being unable to become real leaders and organizers of the cause, to gain informal authority, they often and quickly suffer a fiasco.
10. Unstable type. It is sometimes incorrectly described as a type of weak-willed, drifting person. Adolescents of this type exhibit increased inclination and craving for entertainment, indiscriminately, as well as to idleness and idleness. They have no serious, including professional, interests, they almost never think about their future at all.
11. Conformal type. Adolescents of this type demonstrate opportunistic, and often just mindless submission to any authority, the majority in the group. They are usually prone to moralizing and conservatism, and their main vital credo is “to be like everyone else”. This is a type of opportunist who, for the sake of his own interests, is ready to betray a comrade to leave him at a difficult moment, but no matter what he does, he will always find a “moral” justification for his act, and often not even one.
There are other classifications of character types. For example, a typology of character is widely known, built on the basis of a person’s attitude to life, society and moral values. Its author is E. Fromm, who called this classification a social typology of characters. “Social character,” writes Fromm, “contains ... a selection of traits, an essential core of the character structure of the majority of group members, which was formed as a result of the basic experience and way of life common to this group” *. According to the author of this concept, the social character determines the thinking, emotions and actions of individuals. The various classes and groups of people that exist in society have their own social character. On its basis, certain social, national, and cultural ideas develop and take effect. However, these ideas themselves are passive and can become real forces only when they meet special human needs.
Summarizing the observations of the behavior of various people and correlating them with the practice of working in the clinic, E. Fromm derived the following main types of social characters.
1. “A sadistic masochist. This is a type of person who is inclined to see the reasons for his life success and failure, as well as the causes of the observed social events not in the evolving circumstances, but in people. In an effort to eliminate these causes, he directs his aggression to the person who appears to him the cause of failure. If we are talking about himself, then his aggressive actions are directed at himself; if other people act as the cause, they become victims of its aggressiveness. Such a person is engaged in a lot of self-education, self-improvement, "alteration" of people "for the better." With his persistent actions, exorbitant demands and claims, he sometimes brings himself and others to a state of exhaustion. Such a person is especially dangerous for others when he gains power over them: he begins to terrorize them, proceeding from “good intentions”.
* Fromm E. The Art of Love: A Study of the Nature of Love. - M .: Knowledge, 1990.
|
|
Names
Fromm Erich P. (1900-1980) - German-American-American psychologist and philosopher, one of the representatives of neo-Freudianism. The main problem of mankind saw in the existing contradiction of human existence, which consists in breaking the natural, harmonious connection of man with nature and on this basis with other people and himself. He developed a psychotherapeutic method of humanistic psychoanalysis, which is designed to harmonize the relationship between man, nature and society.
The only adequate answer to the problem of human existence, according to E. Fromm, is love as a special form of human relations, allowing a person to find a true “I”. He reflected this point of view in the book The Art of Love (1964), where he also expressed the idea that the path to the improvement of modern society lies through moral renewal and spiritual cleansing of man.
Describing such people as a psychiatrist, Fromm wrote: “The most often manifested masochistic tendencies are a sense of inferiority, helplessness, insignificance”. The masochistic people show tendencies to demean and weaken themselves, revel in self-criticism and self-flagellation, impose unimaginable vain accusations on themselves, and in all of them try to take the blame themselves, even if they have nothing to do with it.
According to Fromm, people of this type, along with masochistic tendencies, almost always have sadistic tendencies. They are manifested in the desire to make people dependent on themselves, to gain full and unlimited power over them, to exploit them, to hurt and suffer them, to enjoy how they suffer. This type of person was called Fromm an authoritarian personality. Such personality traits were inherent in many despots known in history; Fromm included in their number Hitler, Stalin and a number of other famous historical figures.
2. ^ the Destroyer. It is characterized by pronounced aggressiveness and an active desire to eliminate, destroy the object that caused the frustration, the collapse of hopes in a given person. “Destructiveness,” writes Fromm, “is a means of getting rid of an unbearable sense of powerlessness.” Destructiveness as a means of solving their life problems is usually addressed to people who experience anxiety and powerlessness, are limited in the realization of their intellectual and emotional capabilities. In periods of great social upheaval, revolution, upheaval, they act as the main force destroying the old, including culture.
3. "Conformist machine". Such an individual, faced with intractable social and personal life problems, ceases to be himself. He unquestioningly obeys the circumstances, the society of any type, the requirements of the social group, quickly assimilating the type of thinking and mode of behavior that is peculiar to most people in this situation. Such a person almost never has neither his own opinion nor a pronounced social
positions. He actually loses his own "I", his individuality, and he is used to experiencing precisely those feelings that are expected of him in certain situations. Such a person is always ready to submit to any new government, if necessary, quickly and without problems, changes his convictions, without particularly thinking about the moral side of such behavior. It is a type of conscious or unconscious opportunist.
Widespread classification of characters, depending on the extraverted and introverted type, proposed by Jung. As you remember, extraversion — introversion is considered by modern psychology as a manifestation of temperament. The first type is characterized by the personality being turned on the surrounding world, the objects of which, like a magnet, attract the interests and life energy of the subject, which in a certain sense leads to a lowering of the personal significance of the phenomena of his subjective world. Extroverters are characterized by impulsiveness, initiative, flexibility of behavior, sociability. Introverts are characterized by fixing the interests of the individual on the phenomena of their own inner world, lack of communication, isolation, a tendency to self-analysis, difficult adaptation. It is also possible to divide into conformal and independent, dominant and subordinate, normative and anarchic and other types.
It should be noted that in the process of building a variety of psychological concepts, the character is often associated with temperament, and in some cases, these concepts are mixed. In modern science among the dominant views on the relationship of character and temperament can be divided into four main approaches:
First, very often there is an identification of character and temperament. An example of this is the concept of E. Krechmer, who associated body type with temperament and behavioral characteristics. '
Secondly, in some psychological concepts one can find an opposition of character and temperament. Moreover, most often in these concepts antagonism of character and temperament is emphasized.
Thirdly, by studying psychological concepts, we can meet with the opinions of various researchers that temperament is an element of character, its core, a constant part. For example, S. L. Rubinstein adhered to this point of view.
And finally, fourth, some authors consider temperament as a natural basis of character. Among them are L. S. Vygotsky and B. G. Ananyev.
The existence of these approaches is due to the biosocial nature of man. On the one hand, it is indisputable that the character is formed after the birth of a person, in the process of his interaction with the social environment. However, on the other hand, no one will deny that the physiological characteristics of the body still imprint on the individual.
In Russian psychology, the view has been formed that temperament and character are very close, since the characteristics of temperament in one form or another are reflected in the character of a person. This is due to the fact that the basic properties of temperament are formed much earlier than the formation of character is completed. Therefore, most famous researchers adhere to me-
that character develops on the basis of temperament. Temperament determines such characteristics as balance or imbalance of behavior, ease or difficulty of entering a new situation, mobility or inertia of reaction, etc. However, it is necessary to be aware that temperament does not predetermine a person’s character. People with the same temperament properties can have a completely different character. Features of temperament can only contribute to or counteract the formation of certain character traits.
It should be noted that all existing concepts of character types have one very significant drawback. The fact is that each person is individual and cannot always be referred to a specific type. Very often, the same person is quite developed the most different character traits. Therefore, a question arises that still does not have a satisfactory answer: what to do with those people who do not fit into the classification and cannot be categorized unambiguously to any of the proposed types? Such an intermediate group of people makes up a rather significant part - up to half of all people.
Existing scientific problems are the basis for finding new solutions to the problems of describing and predicting a person’s actions. Very often, the achievements of various sciences are used for this, and they also draw attention to new facts. One of these spiders is Grazology, which regards handwriting as a type of expressive movements reflecting the psychological properties of the writer. Graphical information, accumulated over the centuries, established a connection between two rows of facts - handwriting features and character. There is no doubt that each person has a kind of handwriting. This fact allows us to identify the person and, therefore, gives grounds for considering the issue of dependence of handwriting on character.
Currently, there is no unambiguous data confirming or disproving the connection between handwriting and character. The most reliably established dependence of handwriting on the emotional state and some typological properties of higher nervous activity. On the other hand, N. A. Bernstein noted that the most important thing about the mechanics of motion of a living organism is the “excess degree of freedom” from the motion of a machine. One and the same action can be done in many ways, therefore in each action it is possible to distinguish what may be associated with the personal meaning of this action, and, consequently, with the psycho-physiological characteristics of a particular person.
Character is a multifaceted phenomenon, and it is likely that in the near future new, scientifically based methods for its research will appear.
As noted above, the character is a lifetime education. This means that it is formed after the birth of a person. The origins of a person’s character and the first signs of its manifestation should be sought at the very beginning of life.
The main role in the formation and development of the character of the child is played by his communication with people around him. In his characteristic actions and forms of behavior, the child first of all imitates his loved ones. With the help of direct learning through imitation and emotional reinforcement, he learns the forms of adult behavior.
A sensitive period for the formation of character can be considered the age from two to three to nine to ten years, when children have a lot and actively communicate with both surrounding adults and peers. During this period they are open to outside influences, they are readily accepted, imitating everything and in everything. Adults at this time enjoy the infinite trust of the child, have the opportunity to influence him in word, deed and action, which creates favorable conditions for securing the desired forms of behavior.
Very important for the development of the character of the child is the style of communication of adults with each other, as well as the way adults treat the child itself. This primarily refers to the treatment of parents, and especially the mother, with the child. The way a mother and father act in relation to a child, many years later, becomes a way of treating him with his children, when the child becomes an adult and has his own family.
Earlier than others, such traits as kindness, sociability, and responsiveness, as well as the opposite qualities, such as selfishness, callousness, and indifference to people, are laid in the character of a person. There is evidence that the beginning of the formation of these character traits goes deep into preschool childhood, to the first months of life, and is determined by the way the mother treats the child.
Those qualities of character that are most clearly manifested in work — diligence, accuracy, conscientiousness, responsibility, perseverance — develop a little later, in early and preschool childhood. They are formed and fixed in the games of children and the types of domestic work available to them. A strong influence on their development is rendered by adult stimulation adequate to the age and needs of the child. In the nature of the child, such features that constantly receive support (positive reinforcement) are preserved and fixed.
In the primary grades of the school, character traits are formed, which manifest themselves in relationships with people. This contributes to the expansion of the sphere of communication of the child with others at the expense of many new school friends, as well as teachers. If the fact that the child as a person has acquired at home, gets support in school, then the corresponding character traits are fixed in him and most often persist throughout his later life. If the newly received experience of communication with peers and teachers does not confirm how correct those forms of behavior that the child has acquired at home, then it begins! a gradual breakdown of character, which is usually accompanied by pronounced w [morning and external conflicts. The restructuring of character that takes place in this case does not always lead to a positive result. Most often, there is a partial change in character traits and a compromise between what the child was taught at home and what the school requires of him.
In adolescence, volitional character traits are actively developed and consolidated, and in early youth basic moral and ideological foundations of personality are formed. By the end of school a person’s character can be considered
basically established, and what happens to him in the future almost never makes a person’s character unrecognizable to those who communicated with him in school years.
It should be noted that the character is not a frozen formation, but is formed and transformed throughout the whole life course of a person. Character is not fatally predetermined. Although it is due to the objective circumstances of a person’s life, these circumstances themselves change under the influence of a person’s actions. Therefore, after graduation from an educational institution, the character of a person continues to form or change. At this stage, the person himself is the creator of his character, because character develops depending on the worldview, beliefs and habits of moral behavior that a person develops in himself, on the deeds and actions he performs, on all his conscious activities. This process in modern psychological literature is considered as a process of self-education.
Self-education of character implies that a person is able to free himself from excessive arrogance, can critically look at himself, see his own shortcomings. Это позволит ему определить цель работы над собой, т. е. те черты характера, от которых бы он хотел избавиться или, наоборот, которые хотел бы выработать у себя. Неоценимую помощь в воспитании характера оказывают старшие, поэтому большинство людей стремится найти себе хорошего наставника. Неслучайно на Востоке говорят; «Если есть ученик, учитель найдется». В этом высказывании заложен глубокий смысл. Никакой учитель не в состоянии обучить того, кто не хочет учиться. Тот, кто хочет учиться, всегда найдет, на кого ему равняться.
Пример для подражания не обязательно должен быть реальным. Это может быть киногерой или герой литературного произведения, отличающийся глубокой принципиальностью и исключительной твердостью характера, герой войны, передовой ученый и т. д. Кроме этого, особое значение в формировании характера принадлежит общественной деятельности человека, активное участие в которой развивает чувство ответственности перед коллективом, способствует развитию организованности, выдержки, чувства долга.
Наиболее эффективным средством формирования характера является труд. Сильными характерами обладают люди, ставящие перед собой большие задачи в работе, настойчиво добивающиеся их решения, преодолевающие все стоящие на пути к достижению этих целей препятствия, осуществляющие систематический контроль за выполнением намеченного. Поэтому мы вправе утверждать, что характер, как и другие черты личности, формируется в деятельности.
1. Раскройте суть понятия «характер».
2. В чем выражаются особенности характера как психического феномена?
3. Какие закономерности формирования характера вы знаете?
4. Что вы знаете о классификации черт характера?
5. Как характер проявляется через деятельность?
6. Охарактеризуйте существующие теоретические и экспериментальные подходы к исследованию характера.
7. Что вы знаете об истории исследования характера человека как психического явления?
8. Расскажите о концепциях акцентуаций характера, предложенных К. Леонгар-дом и А. Е. Личко.
9. В чем проявляется взаимосвязь характера и темперамента?
10. Какие особенности формирования характера в детском возрасте вы знаете?
11. Что такое «сензитивный период»?
12. В чем заключается роль взаимодействия ребенка и взрослого в формировании характера?
13. Какие особенности формирования характера в дошкольном и школьном возрасте вы знаете?
14. В чем проявляется трансформация характера в течение жизни?
15. Что такое «самовоспитание» и какова роль самостоятельного труда в формировании характера?
1. Ананьев Б. Г. Избранные Психологические труды: В 2-х т. / Под ред. А. А. Бодалева,
B.F. Lomov. - M .: Pedagogy, 1980.
2. Bodalev A. A. Psychology about personality. - M .: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1988.
3. Гиппенрвйтер Ю. Б. Введение в общую психологию: Курс лекций: Учебное пособие для вузов. - M .: ChsRo, 1997.
4. Granovskaya R.M. Elements of practical psychology. - SPb .: Light, 1997.
5. Леотард К. Акцентуированные личности. — Киев: Вища школа, 1989.
6. Личко А. Е. Психопатии и акцентуации характера у подростков. — Л.: Медицина, 1983.
7. Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - SPb .: Peter, 1999.
8. Страхов И. В. Психология характера. — Саратов: СГПИ, 1970.
9. Теплов Б. М. Избранные труды: В 2-х т. Т. 1. — М.: Педагогика, 1985.
Comments
To leave a comment
General psychology
Terms: General psychology