Lecture
The concept of personality orientation and motivation. The main forms of orientation: desire, desire, desire, interests, ideals, beliefs. The concept of the motive. The problem of human motivation. The concept of need. The purpose of the activity. The main characteristics of the motivational sphere of a person: breadth, flexibility, hierarchization.
Psychological theory of motivation. The problem of motivation in the works of ancient philosophers. Irrationalism Automaton theory. The role of evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin in the development of the problem of human behavior motivation. Theories of instincts. The theory of human biological needs. The behavioral theory of motivation and the theory of higher nervous activity. The classification of human needs but A. Maslow. Motivational concept of the second half of the XX century. The theory of the activity origin of the motivational sphere of a person A. N. Leontiev.
The main patterns of development of the motivational sphere. Mechanisms for the development of motives according to A. N. Leontiev. The main stages of the formation of the motivational sphere in children. Features of the first interests of children. Features of the formation of the motivational sphere in preschool and school age. The role of the game in the formation of the motivational sphere.
Motivated behavior as a personality characteristic. Motivation to achieve and avoid. The level of aspirations and self-esteem. Features of the manifestation of motives affiliation and power. The motif of the otchezheiya. Prosocial behavior. Aggression and motive of aggressiveness. Types of aggressive actions by A. Bandura. Tendencies to aggression and tendency to suppress aggression.
In domestic psychology there are various approaches to the study of personality. However, despite the differences in interpretations of the personality, in all approaches, directionality stands out as its leading characteristic . There are different definitions of this concept, for example, “dynamic tendency” (S. L. Rubinstein), “semantic motive” (A.N. Leontyev), “dominant attitude” (V.N. Myasishchev), “basic life tendency” (B G. Ananyev), “a dynamic organization of the essential forces of man” (A. S. Prangishvnli).
Most often in the scientific literature under the direction of understand a set of sustainable motives, orienting the activities of the individual and relatively independent of the current situation.
It should be noted that the orientation of the individual is always socially determined and is formed in the process of education. Orientation - these are attitudes that have become personality traits and manifested in such forms as desire, desire, desire, interest, inclination, ideal, world view, and persuasion. And the basis of all forms of orientation of the individual are the motives of activity.
We briefly describe each of the selected forms of orientation in the order of their hierarchy. First of all, you should stay on attraction. It is considered to be that attraction is the most primitive, in its essence, biological form of orientation. From a psychological point of view, it is a mental state expressing an undifferentiated, unconscious, or insufficiently conscious need. As a rule, attraction is a transient phenomenon, since the need presented in it either fades away or is realized, turning into desire.
Desire is a conscious need and desire for something well-defined. It should be noted that the desire, being quite conscious, has a motivating force. It sharpens awareness of the purpose of the future action and the construction of its plan. This form of orientation is characterized by an awareness not only of its need, but also of possible ways to satisfy it.
The next form of orientation is aspiration. Aspiration arises when a volitional component is included in the structure of desire. Therefore, aspiration is often seen as a well-defined motivation for action.
Most clearly characterize the orientation of the person's interests. Interest is a specific form of manifestation of the cognitive need, which ensures the orientation of the individual towards the awareness of the goals of the activity and thereby facilitates the orientation of the personality in the surrounding reality. Subjective interest is found in the emotional tone that accompanies the process of cognition or attention to a particular object. One of the most significant characteristics of interest is that, if it is satisfied, it does not fade away, but, on the contrary, causes new interests corresponding to a higher level of cognitive activity.
Interests are the most important driving force to the knowledge of the surrounding reality. There are direct interest caused by the attractiveness of the object, and indirect interest in the object as a means of achieving the goals of the activity. An indirect characteristic of the awareness of needs, reflected in the interests, is the stability of interests, which is expressed in the duration of their preservation and in their intensity. It should also be emphasized that the breadth and content of interests can serve as one of the most striking personality characteristics.
Interest in the dynamics of its development can turn into inclination. This happens when the volitional component is included in the interest. Addiction characterizes the orientation of the individual to a particular activity. The basis of the inclination is the individual’s deep, steady need for a particular activity, that is, s. interest in a particular activity. The tendency to improve the skills and abilities associated with a given need may also be the basis of the propensity. It is considered to be that the inclined tendency can be considered as a prerequisite to the development of certain abilities.
The next form of manifestation of the orientation of the personality is the ideal. An ideal is an objective objective of the individual's inclination, that is, an object specified in an image or a representation, i.e., what he aspires to, what he is guided by. Ideals of man
can act as one of the most significant characteristics of a person’s worldview, that is, his system of views on the objective world, on a person’s place in it, on a person’s attitude to the reality surrounding him and to himself. The worldview reflects not only ideals, but also the value orientations of people, their principles of cognition and activity, their beliefs.
Persuasion - the highest form of orientation - is a system of motives of the person, encouraging her to act in accordance with their views, principles, worldview. Convictions are based on conscious needs that encourage an individual to act, form its motivation to act.
Since we approached the problem of motivation, it should be noted that there are two functionally interrelated aspects in human behavior: the motivating and regulating. The mental processes and states that we considered earlier provide mainly the regulation of behavior. As for his stimulation, or motivations that ensure the activation and orientation of behavior, they are associated with motives and motivation.
The motive is the motivation for activities related to meeting the needs of the subject. The motive is also often understood as the reason underlying the choice of actions and actions, the totality of external and internal conditions that cause the activity of the subject.
The term "motivation" is a broader concept than the term "motive". The word “motivation” is used in modern psychology in a twofold sense: as denoting a system of factors determining behavior (this includes, in particular, needs, motives, goals, intentions, aspirations, and much more), and as a characteristic of the process that stimulates and supports behavioral activity at a certain level. Most often in the scientific literature, motivation is considered as a set of psychological causes explaining a person’s behavior, its beginning, direction and activity.
The question of motivation to work arises whenever it is necessary to explain the reasons for a person’s actions. Moreover, any form of behavior can be explained by both internal and external reasons. In the first case, the psychological characteristics of the subject of behavior act as the initial and final points of the explanation, and in the second case the external conditions and circumstances of his activity. In the first case, they talk about the motives, needs, goals, intentions, desires, interests, etc., and in the second, the incentives emanating from the current situation. Sometimes all the psychological factors that, as it were, from within, from a person determine his behavior, are called personal dispositions. Then, accordingly, they talk about dispositional and situational motivations as analogs of the internal and external determination of behavior.
Internal (dispositional) and external (situational) motivations are interrelated. Dispositions can be updated under the influence of a certain situation, and the activation of certain dispositions (motives, needs) leads to a change in the perception of the situation by the subject. His attention in this case becomes selective, and the subject perceives and evaluates the situation biased, based on actual interests and needs. Therefore, any action of a person is considered as doubly deterministic: dispositional and situational.
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It is necessary to know Antisocial personality Considering the problem of the orientation of the individual, we cannot fail to consider a special group of people who are commonly called "antisocial personalities." Such people have virtually no sense of responsibility, morality, or interest in others. Their behavior is almost completely determined by their own needs. In other words, they have no conscience. If an ordinary person already at an early age imagines that behavior has certain limitations and that pleasure should sometimes be abandoned for the sake of other people's interests, asocial personalities rarely take into account anyone's wishes other than their own. They behave impulsively, strive for immediate satisfaction of their needs and do not tolerate frustration. It should be noted that the term “asocial personality” itself does not refer to the majority of people committing asocial acts. Asocial behavior has a number of reasons, including membership in a criminal group or criminal subculture, the need for attention and elevated status, loss of contact with reality and the inability to control impulses. Most juvenile delinquents and adult felons have a certain interest in other people (family or gang members) and a specific moral code (for example, not betraying a friend). In contrast, an asocial person harbors no feelings for anyone but herself, and does not feel guilty or remorseful, regardless of how much suffering she has caused to people. Other characteristics of an asocial personality (sociopath) include the extraordinary ease of lying, the need to excite oneself or excite and inability to change their behavior as a result of punishment. Such individuals are often perceived as attractive, intelligent, charming people who easily come into contact with other people. Their competent and sincere look allows them to get a promising job, but they have little chance to hold on to it. Restlessness and impulsiveness soon lead them to failure, revealing their true nature; they save debts, abandon their families or commit crimes. Being caught, they so convincingly speak of their repentance that they often cancel the punishment. But asocial personality rarely lives in accordance with their statements; such people have nothing to do with their affairs and feelings. Two characteristics of an asocial personality are especially significant; first, the lack of sympathy and interest in others, and, second, the lack of a sense of shame or guilt, the inability to repent of their actions, regardless of how reprehensible they were. Modern researchers identify three groups of factors that contribute to the development of an asocial personality: biological determinants, features of the relationship between parents and child, and style of thinking. Studies have shown the genetic causes of antisocial behavior, especially criminal. Thus, in identical twins, the concordance value for criminal behavior is twice as high as that of related ones, from which it is clear that such behavior is partially inherited. The study of adoption shows that the crimes of adopted boys are similar to the crimes of their biological fathers.
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Man's minute behavior should not be viewed as a reaction to certain internal or external stimuli, but as a result of the continuous interaction of his dispositions with the situation. Thus, a person’s motivation can be represented as a cyclical process of continuous mutual influence and transformation, in which the subject of action and the situation mutually influence each other and the result of which is actually observed behavior. From this point of view, motivation is a process of continuous choice and decision making based on the weighting of behavioral alternatives.
In turn, the motive, in contrast to motivation, is that which belongs to the subject of behavior itself, is its stable personal property, due to
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In addition, it is noted that asocial personalities have a low excitability, which is why they, with the help of impulsive and dangerous actions, tend to receive stimulation that causes corresponding sensations. Some researchers say that the quality of parental care received by a child who has a tendency to hyperactivity and behavioral disorders determines to a large extent whether a full-scale asocial personality will develop from him or not. One of the best indicators of violations in the behavior of children is the level of parental supervision: children who often remain unattended or who are poorly supervised for a long time, more often develop a pattern of criminal behavior. The variable close to this is parental indifference; children whose parents do not participate in their daily life are more likely to become asocial. Biological and familial factors contributing to behavioral disturbances often overlap. Children with behavioral disturbances often have neuropsychological problems resulting from drug use by the mother, poor intrauterine nutrition, toxic effects before and after birth, abuse, complications of childbirth and low birth weight. Such children are more often irritable, impulsive, awkward, hyperactive, inconsiderate and learn the material more slowly than their peers. This makes parental care more difficult, and the risk of abuse and neglect on the part of parents increases. In turn, the parents of these children most likely themselves have psychological problems that contribute to the ineffective or rude, insolvent performance of parental functions. Therefore, in addition to having a biological predisposition to antisocial behavior, these children experience the treatment of parents, which promotes such behavior. The third group of factors responsible for the development of an asocial personality is the individual psychological characteristics of children. In children with behavioral disorders, the processing of information about social interactions occurs so that they develop aggressive reactions to these interactions. They expect other children to be aggressive towards them, and interpret their actions based on this assumption, instead of relying on signs of a real situation. In addition, children with behavioral disorders tend to consider any negative peer action directed at them to be not accidental, but intentional. When deciding what action to take in response to a perceived peer provocation, a child with impaired behavior will choose from a very limited set of reactions, usually involving aggression. If such a child is forced to choose something other than aggression, he commits muddled and ineffective actions and considers everything except aggression useless and unattractive. Children who so imagine social interaction tend to show aggressive behavior towards others. Payback can be expected of them: other children beat them, parents and teachers are punished, and they are perceived negatively by others. These responses, in turn, reinforce their confidence that the world is against them, and cause them to misinterpret future actions of those around them. So a vicious circle of interactions can be created that supports and inspires the aggressive and asocial behavior of the child.
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Nutrition encouraging to commit certain actions. Мотивы могут быть осознанными или неосознаваемыми. Основная роль в формировании направленности личности принадлежит осознанным мотивам. Следует отметить, что сами мотивы формируются из потребностей человека. Потребностью называют состояние нужды человека в определенных условиях жизни и деятельности или материальных объектах. Потребность, как и любое состояние личности, всегда связана с наличием у человека чувства удовлетворенности или неудовлетворенности. Потребности есть у всех живых существ, и этим живая природа отличается от неживой. Другим ее отличием, также связанным с потребностями, является избирательность реагирования живого именно на то, что составляет предмет потребностей,
т. е. на то, чего организму в данный момент времени не хватает. Потребность активизирует организм, стимулирует его поведение, направленное на поиск того, что требуется.
Количество и качество потребностей, которые имеют живые существа, зависит от уровня их организации, от образа и условий жизни, от места, занимаемого соответствующим организмом на эволюционной лестнице. Меньше всего потребностей у растений, которые имеют нужду только в определенных биохимических и физических условиях существования. Больше всего разнообразных потребностей у человека, который кроме физических и органических потребностей обладает еще и духовными, социальными. Социальные потребности выражаются в стремлении человека жить в обществе, взаимодействовать с другими людьми.
Основные характеристики человеческих потребностей — сила, периодичность возникновения и способ удовлетворения. Дополнительной, но весьма существенной характеристикой, особенно когда речь идет о личности, является предметное содержание потребности, т. е. совокупность тех объектов материальной и духовной культуры, с помощью которых данная потребность может быть удовлетворена.
Побуждающим к деятельности фактором является цель. Целью называют осознаваемый результат, на достижение которого в данный момент направлено действие, связанное с деятельностью, удовлетворяющей актуализированную потребность. Если всю сферу осознанного поведения представить в виде своеобразной арены, на которой разворачивается красочный и многогранный спектакль человеческой жизни, и допустить, что наиболее ярко в данный момент на ней освещено то место, которое должно приковывать к себе наибольшее внимание зрителя (самого субъекта), то это и будет цель. Психологически цель есть то мотивационно-побудительное содержание сознания, которое воспринимается человеком как непосредственный и ближайший ожидаемый результат его деятельности.
The goal is the main object of attention, which occupies a certain amount of short-term and RAM; The thought process unfolding at a given moment in time and most of all kinds of emotional experiences are connected with it.
It is customary to distinguish the purpose of the activity and the life purpose. Это связано с тем, что человеку приходится выполнять в течение жизни множество разнообразных деятельностей, в каждой из которых реализуется определенная цель. Но цель любой отдельной деятельности раскрывает лишь какую-то одну сторону направленности личности, проявляющуюся в данной деятельности. Жизненная цель выступает в качестве обобщающего фактора всех частных целей, связанных с отдельными деятельностями. В то же время реализация каждой из целей деятельности есть частичная реализация общей жизненной цели личности. С жизненными целями связан уровень достижений личности. В жизненных целях личности находит выражение сознаваемая ею «концепция собственного будущего». Осознание человеком не только цели, но и реальности ее осуществления рассматривается как перспектива личности.
The state of frustration, depression, peculiar to a person who is aware of the impossibility of the realization of perspective, is called frustration. This condition arises in cases when a person on the way to achieving a goal is confronted with really insurmountable obstacles, barriers or when they are perceived as such.
The motivational sphere of a person, from the point of view of its development, can be assessed by the following parameters: breadth, flexibility, and hesitation. The breadth of the motivational sphere is understood as a qualitative variety of motivational factors - dispositions (motives), needs and goals. The more a person has a variety of motives, needs and goals, the more developed is his motivational sphere.
The flexibility of the motivational sphere is expressed in the fact that more diverse motivational stimulants of a lower level can be used to satisfy a motivation of a more general nature (higher level) . For example, a more flexible is the motivational sphere of a person who, depending on the circumstances of satisfying the same motive, can use more diverse means than another person. For example, for one individual, the need for knowledge can be satisfied only with the help of television, radio and cinema, and for the other with its meanssatisfaction are also a variety of books, periodicals, communication with people. In the latter, the motivational sphere, by definition, will be more flexible.
Следует отметить, что широта и гибкость характеризуют мотивационную сферу человека по-разному. Широта — это разнообразие потенциального круга предметов, способных служить для данного человека средством удовлетворения актуальной потребности, а гибкость — подвижность связей, существующих между разными уровнями иерархической организации мотивационной сферы: между мотивами и потребностями, мотивами и целями, потребностями и целями.
Следующая характеристика мотивационной сферы — это иерархизирован-ность мотивов. Одни мотивы и цели сильнее других и возникают чаще; другие — слабее и актуализируются реже. Чем больше различий в силе и частоте актуализации мотивационных образований определенного уровня, тем выше иерархизиро-ванность мотивационной сф)еры.
Следует отметить, что проблема исследования мотивации всегда привлекала внимание исследователей. Поэтому существует много разнообразных концепций и теорий, посвященных мотивам, мотивации и направленности личности. Рассмотрим в общих чертах некоторые из них.
Проблема мотивации поведения человека привлекала внимание ученых с незапамятных лет. Многочисленные теории мотивации стали появляться еще в работах древних философов, а в настоящее время таких теорий насчитывается уже несколько десятков. Точка зрения на происхождение мотивации человека в процессе развития человечества и науки неоднократно менялась. Однако большинство научных подходов всегда располагалось между двумя философскими течениями: рационализмом и иррационализмом. Согласно рационалистической позиции, а она особенно отчетливо выступала в работах философов и теологов вплоть до середины XIX в., человек представляет собой уникальное существо особого
рода, не имеющее ничего общего с животными. Считалось, что только человек наделен разумом, мышлением и сознанием, обладает волей и свободой выбора действии, а мотивационный источник человеческого поведения усматривался исключительно в разуме, сознании и воле человека.
Иррационализм как учение в основном рассматривал поведение животных. Сторонники данного учения исходили из утверждения, что поведение животного в отличие от человека несвободно, неразумно, управляется темными, неосознаваемыми силами, имеющими свои истоки в органических потребностях. Схематично история исследования проблемы мотивации представлена на рис. 22.1. Изображенная на нем схема была предложена американским ученым Д. Аткинсоном и частично модифицирована Р. С. Немовым.
Первыми собственно психологическими теориями мотивации принято считать возникшие в ХУП-ХУП! вв. теорию принятия решений, объясняющую на рационалистической основе поведение человека, и теорию автомата, объясняющую на иррационалистнческой основе поведение животного. Первая была связана с использованием математических знаний при объяснении поведения человека. Она рассматривала проблемы выбора человека в экономике. Впоследствии основные положения данной теории были перенесены на понимание человеческих поступков в целом.
Возникновение и развитие теории автомата было вызвано успехами механики в XVII-XVIII вв. Одним из центральных моментов данной теории было учение о рефлексе. Причем в рамках данной теории рефлекс рассматривался как механический, или автоматический, врожденный ответ живого организма на внешние воздействия. Раздельное, независимое существование двух мотивационных теорий (одной — для человека, другой — для животных) продолжалось вплоть до конца XIX в.
Fig. 22.1. История исследования проблемы мотивации
(из: Немов Р. С., 1998)
Во второй половине XIX в. с появлением эволюционной теории Ч. Дарвина возникли предпосылки к тому, чтобы пересмотреть некоторые взгляды на механизмы поведения человека. Разработанная Дарвином теория позволила преодолеть антагонизмы, разделявшие взгляды на природу человека и животных как на два несовместимых в анатомо-физиологическом и психологическом отношениях явления действительности. Более того, Дарвин был одним из первых, кто обратил внимание на то, что у человека и животных имеется немало общих потребностей и форм поведения, в частности эмоционально-экспрессивных выражений и инстинктов.
Под влиянием этой теории в психологии началось интенсивное изучение разумных форм поведения у животных (В. Келер, Э. Торндайк) и инстинктов у человека (3. Фрейд, У. Макдугалл, И. П. Павлов и др.). В ходе этих исследований изменилось представление о потребностях. Если раньше исследователи, как правило, пытались связать потребности с нуждами организма и поэтому использовали понятие «потребность» чаще всего для объяснения поведения животных, то в процессе трансформации и развития научных воззрений данное понятие стали использовать и для объяснения поведения человека. Следует отметить, что использование понятия «потребность» в отношении человека привело к расширению этого понятия. Стали выделять не только биологические, но и некоторые социальные потребности. Однако главной особенностью исследований мотивации поведения человека на данном этапе было то, что в отличие от предыдущего этапа, на котором противопоставлялось поведение человека и животного, эти принципиальные отличия человека от животного старались свести к минимуму. Человеку в качестве мотивационных факторов стали приписывать те же органические потребности, которыми раньше наделяли только животное.
Одним из первых проявлений такой крайней, по существу биологизаторской, точки зрения на поведение человека стали теории инстинктов 3. Фрейда и У. Макдугалла, предложенные в конце XIX в. и получившие наибольшую популярность в начале XX в. Пытаясь объяснить социальное поведение человека по аналогии с поведением животных, Фрейд и Макдугалл свели все формы человеческого поведения к врожденным инстинктам. Так, в теории Фрейда таких инстинктов было три: инстинкт жизни, инстинкт смерти и инстинкт агрессивности. Макдугалл предложил набор из десяти инстинктов: инстинкт изобретательства, инстинкт строительства, инстинкт любопытства, инстинкт бегства, инстинкт стадности, инстинкт драчливости, репродуктивный (родительский) инстинкт, инстинкт отвращения, инстинкт самоунижения, инстинкт самоутверждения. В более поздних работах Макдугалл добавил к перечисленным еще восемь инстинктов, в основном относящихся к органическим потребностям.
Разработанные теории инстинктов все же не смогли ответить на многие вопросы и не позволили решить ряд весьма существенных проблем. Например, как доказать существование у человека этих инстинктов и в какой мере могут быть сведены к инстинктам или выведены из них те формы поведения, которые приобретаются человеком прижизненно под влиянием опыта и социальных условий? А также как в этих формах поведения разделить собственно инстинктивное и приобретаемое в результате научения?
Споры вокруг теории инстинктов не смогли дать научно обоснованного ответа ни на один из поставленных вопросов. В итоге все дискуссии закончились тем, что
the very concept of "instinct" in relation to man has become used *** ever less. New concepts have appeared to describe human behavior, such as need, reflex, attraction, and others.
In the 20s. XX century. the theory of instincts was replaced by a concept in which all human behavior was explained by the presence of biological needs. In accordance with this concept, it was considered to be that humans and animals have common organic needs that have the same effect on behavior. Periodically arising organic needs cause a state of excitement and tension in the body, and the satisfaction of need leads to a decrease in stress. In this concept, there were no fundamental differences between the concepts of “instinct” and “need”, except that instincts are innate and needs can! be acquired and changed throughout life, especially in humans.
It should be noted that the use of the concepts of "instinct" and "the need for this concept had one major drawback: did their use eliminate the need to take cognitive into account in explaining human behavior? psychological characteristics associated with consciousness and with the subjective states of the body. Therefore, these concepts were subsequently replaced by the concept of attraction, or drive. Moreover, by inclination was understood the desire of the organism to some final result, subjectively represented in the form of some goal, expectation or intention against the background of the corresponding emotional experience.
In addition to the theories of biological human needs, instincts and drives in the early XX century. there were two more new directions. Their occurrence was largely due to the discoveries of I. P. Pavlov. This is a behavioral (behaviorist) theory of motivation and the theory of higher nervous activity. The behavioral concept of motivation is in its essence a logical continuation of the ideas of the founder of behaviorism D. Watson. Representatives of this direction, which have received the greatest fame, are E. Tolman K. Hull and B. Skinner. All of them tried to explain the behavior within the framework of the initial behaviorism scheme: “stimulus-reaction”.
Another theory — the theory of higher nervous activity — was developed;
IP Pavlov, and its development was continued by his students and followers, among whom were the following: N. A. Bernshtein — author of the theory of the psychophysiological regulation of movements; PK Anokhin, who proposed a model of a functional system, which at the present level describes and explains the dynamics of a behavioral act; E. N. Sokolov, who discovered and investigated the orienting reflex, which is of great importance for psychophysiological understanding;
mechanisms of perception, attention and motivation, and also proposed a model of a conceptual reflex arc.
One of the theories that arose at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. and continuing to be developed now, is the theory of the organic needs of animals. It did not arise and develop under the influence of the former irrationalistic traditions in the understanding of animal behavior. Its modern representatives see their task in explaining the behavior of animals from the standpoint of physiology and biology.
Chapter 22. Orientation and motives of a person’s activity • 521
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Names
McDougall William (1871-1938) is an Anglo-American psychologist, the founder of "gormical psychology", according to which the instinctive desire for a goal was originally incorporated in the nature of the living. McDougall declared himself as an original thinker in 1908, when one of his most important works, Basic Problems of Social Psychology, was published, where he formulated the basic principles of human social behavior. This work formed the basis of his "hormone psychology" as part of a dynamic psychology that focuses on modifications of mental processes and their energy basis.
Skill, according to McDougall, is not in itself the driving force of behavior and does not orient it. He considered irrational, instinctive impulses as the main driving forces of human behavior. Behavior is based on interest due to innate instinctual attraction, which only finds its manifestation in skill and is served by one or other mechanisms of behavior. Every organic body from birth is endowed with a certain vital energy, the reserves and forms of distribution (discharge) of which are rigidly predetermined by the repertoire of instincts. As soon as the primary impulses are determined in the form of impulses directed to one purpose or another, they are expressed in the corresponding bodily devices.
Initially, McDougall identified 12 types of instincts: flight (fear), rejection (disgust), curiosity (surprise), aggressiveness (anger), self-deprecation (embarrassment), self-affirmation (inspiration), parental instinct (tenderness), procreation instinct, food instinct, herd instinct, the instinct of acquisitions, the instinct of creation. In his opinion, the basic instincts are directly connected with the corresponding emotions, since the inner expression of the instincts are emotions.
Concepts and theories of motivation, attributable only to man, began to appear in psychological science since the 30s. XX century. The first of these was the theory of motivation, proposed by K. Levin. Following it were published the work of representatives of humanistic psychology —G. Murray, A. Maslow, G. Allport, C. Rogers, and others. Consider some of them.
G. Murray’s motivational concept has become quite widely known. Along with the list of organic, or primary, needs identical to the basic instincts allocated by W. McDougall, Murray proposed a list of secondary (psychogenic) needs arising on the basis of instinct-like drives as a result of upbringing and training. These are the needs of achieving success, affiliation, aggression, the need for independence, opposition, respect, humiliation, protection, domination, attention, avoidance of harmful effects, avoidance of failure, patronage, order, game. rejection, understanding, sexual relations, help, mutual understanding. Subsequently, in addition to these twenty needs, the author attributed six more to the person: acquisitions, dismissal of charges, knowledge, creation, explanation, recognition and thrift.
Another, even more well-known concept of the motivation of human behavior, belongs to A. Maslow. Most often, when they talk about this concept, they mean the existence of a hierarchy of human needs and their classification proposed by Maslow. According to this concept, a person from birth consistently appears and is accompanied by seven classes of needs
Fig. 22.2. Needs Structure by A. Maslow
(fig. 22.2): physiological (organic) needs, needs for security, needs for belonging and love, needs of respect (esteem), cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, needs for self-actualization. Moreover, according to the author, the basis of this motivational pyramid are physiological needs, and the highest needs, such as aesthetic and the need for self-actualization, form its peak.
In the second half of the XX century. Theories of human needs were supplemented by a number of motivational concepts presented in the writings of D. McClelland, D. Atkinson, G. Heckhausen, G. Kelly, J. Rotter, and others. To a certain extent, they are close to each other and have a number of common points.
First, in most of these theories, the fundamental possibility of creating a unified universal theory of motivation, equally successfully explaining both the behavior of animals and humans, was denied.
Secondly, it was emphasized that the desire to relieve tension as the main motivational source of purposeful behavior at the person’s level does not work, in any case is not for him the basic motivational principle.
Thirdly, in most of these theories it was stated that a person is not reactive, but initially active. Therefore, the principle of stress reduction to explain human behavior is unacceptable, and the sources of its activity should be sought in him, in his psychology.
Fourthly, these theories recognized, along with the role of the unconscious, the essential role of human consciousness in shaping its behavior. Moreover, according to most authors, conscious regulation for humans is the leading mechanism for the formation of behavior.
Fifth, for most of the theories of this group, there was a tendency to introduce into scientific use specific concepts reflecting the peculiarities of human motivation, for example, “social needs, motives” (D. McClelland, D. Atkinson, G. Heckhausen), “life goals "(K. Rogers, R. May)," cognitive factors "(Y. Rotter, G. Kelly, and others.).
Sixth, the authors of the theories of this group were unanimous in the opinion that the methods of studying the causes of behavior in animals are unacceptable for the study of human motivation. Therefore, they attempted to find special methods of studying motivation that are suitable only for a person.
In Russian psychology, attempts were also made to solve problems of human motivation. However, until the mid-1960s. psychological studies have focused on the study of cognitive processes. The main scientific development of domestic psychologists in the field of problems of motivation is the theory of the activity origin of the human motivational sphere, created by A. N. Leontiev.
You are already familiar with the psychological theory of Leontief’s activity. According to his concept, the motivational sphere of a person, like his other psychological features, has its sources in practical activities. In particular, between the structure of activity and the structure of the motivational sphere of a person, there are relations of isomorphism, that is, mutual conformity, and the basis of the dynamic changes that occur with the motivational sphere of a person
lies the development of a system of activities that is subject to objective social laws.
Thus, this concept explains the origin and dynamics of the human motivation sphere. It shows how the system of activities can change, how its hierarchy is transformed, how certain types of activities and operations arise and disappear, and what modifications occur to actions. In accordance with the laws of development of activities, laws can be derived that describe changes in the motivational sphere of a person, the acquisition of new needs, motives and goals.
All considered theories have their advantages and at the same time their disadvantages. Their main drawback lies in the fact that they are able to explain only some of the phenomena of motivation, to answer only a small part of the questions that arise in this area of psychological research. Therefore, the study of the motivational sphere of man continues to this day.
In domestic psychology, the formation and development of the motivational sphere in a person is considered within the framework of the psychological theory of activity proposed by A. N. Leontiev. The question of the formation of new motives and the development of the motivational c4) ery is one of the most complex and not fully understood. Leontyev described only one mechanism for the formation of motives, which was called the mechanism for shifting a motive to a target (another variant of the name of this mechanism is a mechanism for turning a goal into a motive). The essence of this mechanism is that in the process of activity, the goal to which, for certain reasons, a person has strived, with time, she herself becomes an independent motivating force, that is, a motive.
The central point of this theory is that the motive for which we strive to achieve the goal is associated with the satisfaction of certain needs. But over time, the goal we were striving to achieve could turn into an urgent need. For example, often parents, in order to stimulate a child’s interest in reading books, promise him to buy some kind of toy if he reads a book. However, in the process of reading a child has an interest in the book itself, and gradually reading books can become one of its main needs. This example explains the mechanism of development of the human motivational sphere by increasing the number of needs. In this case, the most significant is that the expansion of the number of needs, i.e. the expansion of the list of what a person needs, occurs in the process of his activity, in the process of his contact with the environment.
Historically, in the domestic psychology, the formation of the motivational sphere of a person in the process of his ontogenesis is considered within the framework of shaping the interests of a person as the main reasons that encourage him
to development and activity. As you remember, interests reflect primarily the cognitive needs of a person. Therefore, in domestic psychology, the development of the motivational sphere, as a rule, is considered in unity with the general development of the human psyche, especially its cognitive sphere.
Conducted scientific studies have shown that the first manifestations of interest are observed in children already in the first year of life, as soon as the child begins to orient himself in the surrounding world. At this stage of development of the child, bright, colorful objects, unfamiliar things, sounds made by objects are most often interested. The child not only feels pleasure, perceiving all this, but also requires that he be again and again shown the object that interests him, again he was given to hear the sounds that caused his interest. He cries and is indignant if he is deprived of the opportunity to continue to perceive what aroused interest.
A characteristic feature of the first interests of the child is their extreme instability and rigor to the cash perception. The child is interested in what he perceives at the moment. He is angry and crying if anything that interested him has disappeared from sight. Reassuring the child in these cases is not difficult; it is enough to draw his attention to something else, as the interest in what he perceived before, goes out and is replaced by a new one.
As the motor activity develops , the child becomes more and more interested in independently performing the actions with which he gradually masters. Already in the first year of life, the child discovers, for example, the tendency to repeatedly throw things on the floor in his hand — by dropping the taken thing, he demands that it be lifted and given to him, but then he throws it again, again he demands her return to him , again throws, etc. Having mastered more complex actions, he also takes an interest in performing them repeatedly and can, for example, invest one thing in another for a long time and take it out again.
With the development of speech and communication with others, as well as with the expansion of the range of objects and actions with which the child meets, his cognitive interests are greatly expanded . A vivid expression of them are the most diverse questions asked by children to adults, starting with the question: “What is it?” And ending with questions relating to explaining what is perceived by a child: “Why does a cow have horns?”, “Why does the moon not fall to the ground ? ”,“ Why is the grass green? ”,“ Where does the milk go when we drink it? ”,“ Where does the wind come from? ”,“ Why do birds sing? ”- all these questions, and many others like them, are keenly interested in the child, and at the age of three to five, he is so “falling asleep” by them an adult that the whole of this period of his life has willow is called the period of questions.
The end of pre-pre-school and the beginning of pre-school age are characterized by the emergence of interest in the game, more and more expanding throughout the pre-school childhood. The game is the leading activity of the child at this age, various aspects of his mental life develop in it, many of the most important psychological qualities of his personality are formed. At the same time, the game is the activity that most attracts the child to itself, the most exciting one. She is at the center of his interests, she is interested in him and, in her
turn, reflects all the other interests of the child. Everything that interests children in the world around them, in the life that develops around them, usually finds this or that reflection in their games.
It should be noted that the cognitive interests of preschoolers, aimed at the knowledge of reality, are very broad. A preschooler child watches for a long time what has attracted his attention from the outside world, and asks a lot about what he sees around him. However, as well as at an earlier age, he is interested in everything that is bright, colorful, sonorous. Particularly lively interest is in him all the dynamic, moving, acting, detecting noticeable, clearly expressed and especially unexpected changes. He watches with great interest for changes in nature, willingly observes the growth of plants in a “living corner”, for changes associated with the change of seasons, with changes in weather. Немалый интерес вызывают у него животные, особенно те из них, с которыми он может играть (котята, щенки) или за поведением которых он может наблюдать в течение длительного времени (рыбы в аквариуме, цыплята, суетящиеся возле наседки, и т. д.).
Широко интересуясь реальной действительностью, дети дошкольного возраста обнаруживают большой интерес и к фантастическим рассказам, в особенности к сказкам. Одну и ту же сказку дети-дошкольники готовы слушать по многу раз.
Конец дошкольного периода и начало школьного возраста характеризуются обычно появлением новых интересов у ребенка — интереса к учению, к школе. Как правило, его интересует сам процесс учения, возможность новой деятельности, которой ему предстоит заниматься, новые для него правила школьной жизни, новые обязанности, новые товарищи и школьные учителя. Но этот первоначальный интерес к школе еще носит недифференцированный характер. Начинающего школьника привлекают все виды работы в школе: он одинаково охотно пишет, читает, считает, выполняет
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Часть 1 22. Orientation and motives of the individual. Needs
Часть 2 22.4. Мотивированное поведение как характеристика личности - 22. Orientation and
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General psychology
Terms: General psychology