3. The concept of the psyche and its evolution

Summary

The concept of the psyche. The psyche as a property of highly organized living matter. The nature and mechanisms of mental phenomena. Irritability. Sensitivity and sensations, their properties and main differences compared to irritability. Behavior as a process of adaptation to environmental conditions. Consciousness as the highest level of mental reflection. "I-concept" and the criticality of man, their role in shaping human behavior. The main functions of the psyche. Ensuring adaptation to environmental conditions is an integrative function of the psyche. Common problems of the origin of the human psyche.

The development of the psyche of animals. Instinctive behavior of animals and the stage of elementary behavior. The role of the properties of external stimuli in the formation of the behavior of animals that are at the level of development of the elementary sensory psyche. Differentiation of organs of sensitivity. The nodal nervous system and the valuable behavior of animals. The tubular nervous system and the complication of animal behavior. Teaching IP Pavlov on conditional and unconditioned reflexes. The stage of skills and objective perception, its main features. Stage of intellectual behavior. The main features of the stage of intellectual behavior. The concept of Leontiev-Fabri. Idealistic views of P. Chardin on the problem of the development of the psyche of animals.

3.1. The concept of the psyche

In previous chapters, we viewed psychology as a modern and multifaceted science. Translated from the ancient Greek, "psychology" is the science of the soul, and, therefore, its subject is the "soul" or psyche. But what is the psyche and mental phenomena? We have already spoken about the existence of different points of view on such a complex and multifaceted phenomenon as the "psyche" or "soul" is. Most of them refer to either the idealistic or the materialistic interpretation. In the domestic psychological science in the study of mental phenomena, as a rule, proceed from the standpoint of dialectical materialism.

The psyche is a property of highly organized living matter, consisting in the active reflection by the subject of the objective world, in the construction by the subject of an inalienable picture of this world and the regulation on this basis of behavior and activity.

From this definition follows a number of fundamental judgments about the nature and mechanisms of the manifestation of the psyche. First, the psyche is a property of living matter only. And not just living matter, but highly organized living matter. Consequently, not every living matter has this property, but only that which has specific organs that determine the possibility of the existence of the psyche.

Chapter 3. The concept of the psyche and its evolution • 71

Secondly, the main feature of the psyche is the ability to reflect the objective world. What does this mean? Literally, this means the following: highly organized living matter that has a psyche has the ability to obtain information about the world around it. At the same time, obtaining information is associated with the creation of a certain mental, ie, subjective in nature and idealistic (non-material) in nature, image of this highly organized matter, which with a certain measure of accuracy is a copy of the material objects of the real world.

Thirdly, the information about the world received by a living being serves as the basis for regulating the internal environment of a living organism and shaping its behavior, which generally determines the possibility of a relatively long-term existence of this organism in constantly changing environmental conditions. Consequently, living matter with a psyche is able to respond to changes in the external environment or to the effects of environmental objects.

It must be emphasized that there is a very significant number of forms of living matter with certain mental abilities. These 4 'forms of living matter differ from each other in the level of development of mental properties. What are these differences?

The elementary ability to respond selectively to the influence of the external environment is already observed in the simplest forms of living matter. So, the amoeba, which is just one living cell filled with protoplasm, moves away from some stimuli and approaches the others. At its core, amoeba movements are the initial form of adaptation of the simplest organisms to the external environment. Such an adaptation is possible due to the existence of a certain property that distinguishes living matter from inanimate matter. This property is irritability. Externally, it is expressed in the manifestation of the forced activity of a living organism. The higher the level of development of the organism, the more complex the manifestation of its activity in the event of changes in environmental conditions. Primary forms of irritability are found even in plants, for example, the so-called "tropism" - forced movement.

As a rule, living organisms of this level react only to direct effects, such as mechanical touches that threaten the integrity of the organism, or to biotic stimuli. For example, plants respond to light, the content of trace elements in the soil, etc. Thus, we will not be mistaken if we say that living organisms of this level react only to factors biologically significant for them, and their response is reactive in nature, with. a living organism is active only after a direct exposure to it of an environmental factor.

The further development of irritability in living beings is largely due to the complication of the living conditions of more developed organisms, which accordingly have a more complex anatomical structure. Living organisms of this level of development are forced to respond to a more complex set of environmental factors. The combination of these internal and external conditions predetermines the emergence in living organisms of more complex forms of response, known as sensitivity. Sensitivity characterizes

72 • Part I, Introduction to General Psychology

general ability to feel. According to A. I. Leontiev, the appearance of sensitivity in animals can serve as an objective biological sign of the onset of the psyche.

A distinctive feature of sensitivity compared with irritability is that with the onset of sensations, living organisms are able to respond not only to biologically significant environmental factors, but also to biologically neutral, although for the simplest representatives of this level of development, such as worms, mollusks, arthropods, still are biologically significant environmental factors. However, in this case, the nature of the response of animals with sensitivity to environmental factors is fundamentally different from the response of living organisms of a lower level. Thus, the presence of sensitivity allows an animal to react to an object that makes sense for it before direct contact with it. For example, an animal of a given level of development of the psyche may react to the color of the object, its paws or shape, etc. Later in the development of the organic mother, living creatures gradually form one of the main properties of the psyche — the ability of advanced and integral reflection of the real world. This means that in the process of evolution, animals with a more highly developed psyche are able to obtain information about the surrounding world, analyze it and respond to the possible impact of any surrounding objects, both biologically significant and biologically neutral.

In itself, the appearance in a certain class of animals of sensitivity, or the capacity for sensations, can be viewed not only as the birth of the psyche, but also as the appearance of a fundamentally new form of adaptation to the external environment. The main difference of this type of adaptation lies in the appearance of special processes connecting the animal with the environment, the processes of behavior.

Behavior is a complex set of reactions of a living organism to the effects of the external environment. It must be emphasized that living beings, depending on the level of mental development, have behaviors of varying complexity. We can see the simplest behavioral reactions by observing, for example, how the worm changes its direction of motion when confronted with an obstacle. In this case, the higher the level of development of a living being, the more complex its behavior. For example, in dogs we already see the manifestation of anticipatory reflection. So, the dog avoids a meeting with an object that contains a certain threat. However, the most complex behavior is observed in a person who, unlike animals, has not only the ability to respond to sudden changes in environmental conditions, but also the ability to form motivated (conscious) and purposeful behavior. The possibility of such a complex behavior due to the presence of human consciousness.

Consciousness - the highest level of mental reflection and regulation, inherent only to man as a socio-historical being.

From a practical point of view, consciousness appears as a continuously changing set of sensual and mental images that directly appear before the subject in his inner world and anticipate his practical activity. We have the right to assume that a similar mental activity

Chapter 3. The concept of the psyche and its evolution • 73

The development of mental images also occurs in the most developed animals, such as dogs, horses, dolphins. Therefore, man is distinguished from animals not by this activity itself, but by the mechanisms of its occurrence, which originated in the process of human social development. These mechanisms and features of operating with them determine the existence of such a phenomenon as consciousness in a person.

As a result of the action of these mechanisms, a person separates himself from the environment and is aware of his individuality, forms his “I-concept”, which consists in the totality of a person's ideas about himself, about the surrounding reality and his place in society. Thanks to consciousness, a person has the ability to independently, that is, without the influence of environmental stimuli, regulate his behavior. In turn, the “I-concept” is the core of its self-regulation system. A person interprets all perceived information about the world through his system of ideas about himself and forms his behavior on the basis of his values, ideals and motivational attitudes. Of course, human behavior does not always correspond to environmental conditions. The adequacy of human behavior is largely determined by the degree of its criticality.

In a simplified way, criticality is the ability to recognize the difference between “good” and “bad”. Thanks to the criticality of a person, ideals are formed and an idea of ​​moral values ​​is created. It is the ability to critically evaluate what is happening and compare the information received with their attitudes and ideals, and also, based on this comparison, to shape their behavior distinguishes a person from an animal. Thus, criticality acts as a mechanism for controlling one’s behavior. On the other hand, the presence of such a complex mechanism for the formation and operation of mental images determines whether a person has the ability to conscious activity, the manifestation of which is labor.

In order to realize the importance of this inference, let us try to deny it, saying that certain animals also perform useful actions. For example, a dog is guarding, a horse is carrying firewood, and some animals perform in a circus, demonstrating actions that at first glance seem reasonable. However, all this is so only at first glance. In order to perform such complex actions, the animal needs a man. Without the participation of man, without his initiating principle, the animal is unable to perform actions similar to conscious behavior. Consequently, human activity and animal behavior differ in the degree of independence. Thanks to consciousness, a person acts consciously and independently.

Thus, we can distinguish four main levels of development of the psyche of living organisms: irritability, sensitivity (sensations), the behavior of higher animals (externally determined behavior), human consciousness (self-determined behavior). It should be noted that each of these levels has its own stages of development.

Only man possesses the highest level of development of the psyche. But man is not born with a developed consciousness. The formation and evolution of consciousness occur in the process of physiological and social development of a specific individual.

74 • Part I. Introduction to General Psychology

(ontogeny). Therefore, the process of formation of consciousness is strictly individual, due to both the characteristics of social development and genetic predisposition.

There is another question in the study of mental phenomena that we need to highlight in this section. What are the functions of the psyche? It seems that the answer to this question is very simple. However, you will not find a direct answer to it in any textbook of psychology, because it really is one of the most difficult questions among those studied by modern psychology. Manifestations of the psyche are so multifaceted that it is very difficult to give an unequivocal answer. For example, if we confine ourselves to the statement that the psyche provides adaptation to environmental conditions, then how can one explain such a phenomenon as human creativity? Should creativity be considered as a form of adaptation to social conditions, since very often creativity is not so much conducive to solving problems of a person as it gives them problems? Another example:

Why does a person experience special feelings when meeting an outstanding work of art, be it a book, a painting, music or anything else? This can hardly be explained only by adaptive reactions of a person. And there are a lot of such examples when manifestations of various forms of mental cannot be explained from the position of expediency.

Apparently, in order to determine all the functions of the psyche, it is necessary to list all the forms and the nature of its manifestation. This is currently unlikely to succeed. More precisely, we can determine the functions of the psyche, perhaps, only in one area. This is the sphere of interaction between living organisms and the environment (Figure 3.1). From this point of view, we can distinguish three main functions of the psyche: a reflection of the surrounding reality, the preservation of the integrity

Fig. 3.1. The main functions of the psyche

Chapter 3. The concept of the psyche and its evolution • 75

organism, regulation of behavior. These functions are interrelated and are in fact elements of the integrative function of the psyche, which is to ensure the adaptation of a living organism to environmental conditions.

The more developed a living being, the more complex the mechanisms of its adaptation. We observe the most complex adaptation mechanisms in humans. The process of human adaptation to a certain extent is similar to the process of adaptation of higher animals. As with animals, human adaptation has an internal and external orientation. The internal focus of adaptation is that, thanks to the process of adaptation, the internal environment of the organism is maintained constant and, thus, the integrity of the organism is maintained. The external manifestation of adaptation consists in ensuring adequate contact of the living being with the external environment, that is, in the formation of appropriate behavior in more developed creatures or in behavioral reactions in less developed organisms. Consequently, both the inner and outer sides of adaptation primarily provide for the possibility of the biological existence of the living being. In humans, the construction of contact with the external environment has a more complex structure than in animals, since man contacts not only the natural, but also the social environment, which operates according to laws different from the laws of nature. Therefore, we have the right to believe that human adaptation is directed not only at ensuring its biological existence, but also at ensuring its existence in society.

In addition, we have the right to assume that the regulation of the internal state of a person occurs at a more complex level, since the flow of information about the changed environmental conditions gives rise to certain changes in the course of mental processes, that is, a person's mental adaptation also occurs.

There is another problem of scientific knowledge of the psyche, about which we have already spoken and on which we must again focus our attention. This is the problem of the origin of the psyche. What caused the existence of such a phenomenon, what is the psyche? Earlier it was already mentioned about the existence of different points of view regarding the origin of the psyche. С одной точки зрения — идеалистической — психическое (душа) в своем происхождении не связано с телом (биологическим носителем души) и имеет божественное происхождение. С другой точки зрения — дуалистической — у человека существуют два начала: психическое (идеальное) и биологическое (материальное). Эти два начала развиваются параллельно и в определенной мере взаимосвязаны друг с другом. С третей точки зрения — материалистической — феномен психики обусловлен эволюцией живой природы, и его существование должно рассматриваться как свойство высокоразвитой материи.

Споры о происхождении психики не прекращаются и по сей день. Это обусловлено тем, что проблема происхождения психики является не только одной из самых сложных в научном познании, но и основополагающей. Объяснить происхождение психики пытаются многие ученые в рамках не только психологической науки, но и философии, религии, физиологии и т. д. Сегодня еще пет однозначного ответа на этот вопрос.

76 • Часть I. Введение в общую психологию

В отечественной психологии данную проблему рассматривают с материалистической точки зрения, что предполагает использование рационалистического способа познания, основанного на эксперименте. Благодаря экспериментальным исследованиям сегодня мы знаем, что существует определенная взаимосвязь между биологическим и психическим. Например, хорошо известно, что заболевания или нарушения функционирования тех или иных органов могут отражаться на психике человека. Так, длительный курс лечения с использованием аппарата «искусственная почка» сопровождается явлением временного снижения интеллектуальных способностей, что связано с накоплением в мозге солей алюминия. После прекращения курса лечения происходит восстановление интеллектуальных способностей.

Следует отметить, что столь сложные психические механизмы, наблюдаемые у человека, стали возможны лишь вследствие длительной эволюции живых организмов, исторического развития человечества и индивидуального развития конкретного индивида. В данной главе мы рассмотрим эволюцию психики животных.

3.2. Развитие психики животных

В отечественной психологии давно утвердилось мнение о том, что поведение животных по своей сути является инстинктивным поведением. С инстинктами связаны и те формы поведения, которые приобретаются конкретным животным в процессе его жизни.

Инстинктивное поведение — это видовое поведение, одинаково направленное у всех представителей одного и того же вида животных. Как правило, инстинктивное поведение определяется биологической целесообразностью и заключается в обеспечении возможности существования (выживания) конкретного представителя или вида в целом. По было бы не совсем верно утверждать, что поведение животного является только генетически обусловленным и не изменяется в течение его жизни.

Условия, в которых находится животное, постоянно изменяются, поэтому индивидуальное приспособление, как указывал И. П. Павлов, существует у всех животных. Например, кольчатые черви обычно реагируют на прикосновение к ним палочкой защитными движениями, но если это движение связать с кормлением, то оно вызывает у них поведенческие реакции, связанные с поиском пищи. Доказана также возможность изменения поведения у дафний, моллюсков, пчел и др.

Особенностью поведения животных на ранних этапах развития является то, что оно всегда побуждается и управляется отдельными свойствами предметов, воздействующих на животное. Например, как только насекомое попадает в паутину, паук бежит к нему и опутывает его своей нитью. Что вызывает это поведение паука? В специальных опытах было установлено, что подобное поведение паука обусловлено вибрацией паутины, передающей вибрацию крыльев насекомого. Как только вибрация прекращается, паук перестает двигаться к своей жертве, но стоит возобновить вибрацию, как паук вновь начинает двигаться. То, что именно вибрация паутины обусловливает поведение паука, доказывает следующий опыт: виб-

Глава 3. Понятие о психике и ее эволюции • 77

рирующий камертон, поднесенный к паутине, вызывает движение паука, в то же время вибрация крыльев мухи, схваченной пинцетом и поднесенной непосредственно к пауку, заставляет паука обратиться в бегство. Значит, действительно, движение паука к жертве обусловлено вибрацией паутины.

Невольно возникает несколько вопросов. Во-первых, чем объясняется побудительное действие тех или иных свойств предметов и, во-вторых, почему вообще возможно какое-либо поведение животных? Ответ на первый вопрос прост: вибрация паутины устойчиво связана у паука с поглощением и усвоением им пищи — насекомого, попавшего в паутину. Следовательно, подобное поведение животных имеет биологический смысл, поскольку связано с удовлетворением биологических потребностей, в данном случае с поглощением пищи.

Следует отметить, что биологический смысл воздействия предметов, возбуждающих и направляющих поведение животного, не является постоянным, а меняется и развивается в зависимости от конкретных условий жизни животного и особенностей среды. Если, например, проголодавшуюся жабу начать кормить червями, а потом положить перед ней спичку и комочек мха, то она схватит спичку, имеющую, подобно червям, удлиненную форму. Но если предварительно кормить жабу пауками, то она не обратит внимания на спичку и схватит мох. Округлые формы теперь приобрели для нее смысл пищи.

Эта стадия развития, характеризующаяся тем, что поведение животного побуждается отдельными свойствами предмета в силу того, что они связаны с осуществлением основных жизненных (функций животных, называется стадией элементарного поведения. Соответственно данный уровень развития психики называется стадией элементарной сенсорной психики.

Теперь необходимо ответить на вопрос, почему возможно данное поведение у животных? Подобное поведение животного возможно благодаря существованию определенных органов, являющихся материальной основой психического. На стадии элементарного поведения в развитии животных наблюдается дифференциация органов чувствительности. .Например, если у низших животных клетки, чувствительные к свету, рассеяны по всей поверхности тела и эти животные обладают лишь общей светочувствительностью, то уже у червей (рис 3.2) эти клетки

Fig. 3.2. Дифференциация органов чувств у животных на стадии элементарною

behavior. Объяснения в тексте

78 • Часть I. Введение в общую психологию

стягиваются к головному концу тела (А) и приобретают форму пластинок (В), что позволяет им более точно ориентироваться по отношению к свету. На более высокой ступени развития стоят моллюски. Ввиду выгибания пластинок светочувствительные органы приобретают сферическую форму (С), благодаря чему моллюски в состоянии воспринимать движение окружающих объектов.

У животных, достигших в своем развитии стадии элементарного поведения, более развиты органы движения (что связано с необходимостью преследования добычи) и специальный орган связи и координации процессов поведения — нервная система. Первоначально она представляет собой сеть волокон, идущих в различных направлениях и непосредственно соединяющих чувствительные клетки, заложенные на поверхности тела, с сократительной тканью животного (сетевидная нервная система). Особенностью такой нервной системы является отсутствие процессов торможения, а нервные волокна не дифференцированы на чувствительные и двигательные и обладают двусторонней проводимостью.

В процессе дальнейшего развития нервной системы наблюдается выделение центральных нервных узлов, или ганглиев. Этот уровень развития нервной системы получил название узловой нервной системы. Возникновение узлов в нервной системе связано с образованием сегментов тела животного (рис. 3.3). При этом

Fig. 3.3. Узловая нервная система животных

наблюдается усложнение поведения животного. Во-первых, характерно появление цепного поведения, представляющего собой цепь реакций на отдельные, последовательно действующие раздражители. Описывая данный тип поведения, А. Н. Леонтьев приводит в качестве примера поведение некоторых насекомых, откладывающих яйца в коконы других видов. Вначале насекомое направляется к кокону под влиянием обоняния. Затем при приближении к кокону насекомое действует зрительно. Наконец, само откладывание совершается уже в зависимости от того, подвижна ли личинка в коконе или нет, что обнаруживается при прямом контакте с коконом, т. е. на основе осязания (рис. 3.4).

Глава 3. Понятие о психике и ее эволюции животных • 79

Цепное поведение характерно для червей, насекомых и паукообразных, у которых оно достигает высшей ступени развития. Поиск пищи у них происходит, как считает известный русский зоопсихолог В. А. Вагнер, «при посредстве какого-либо одного органа чувств без содействия других органов: осязания, реже обоняния и зрения, но всегда только одного из них». Следует подчеркнуть, что эта линия развития поведения к дальнейшим прогрессивным и качественным изменениям не ведет.

Fig. 3.4. Пример цепного поведения

Особенностью другой формы поведения является то, что оно осуществляется под одновременным воздействием все большего количества раздражителей. Такое поведение характерно для хордовых и позвоночных. Например, поведение рыб направляется одновременным воздействием обонятельных, осязательных, зрительных и других раздражителей. При этом информация о воздействующих раздражителях объединяется, что возможно лишь при более развитой нервной системе, чем узловая. Если в узловой нервной системе беспозвоночных отдельные нервные узлы — ганглии связаны лишь тонкими перемычками, то у хордовых и позвоночных нервная система представляет сплошной тяж, или трубку, с утолщением головного конца — простейшим головным мозгом, который позволяет совершать животному более сложные поведенческие акты на основе одновременного действия разных раздражителей. Эта нервная система получила название трубчатой нервной системы (рис. 3.5).

Fig. 3.5. Трубчатая нервная система

Перемены в поведении животных объясняются развитием нервной системы и головного мозга. Увеличивается объем головного мозга, усложняется его структура. Среди органов чувств начинает преобладать зрение. Одновременно развиваются и органы движения. Главной физиологической основой поведения животных на этой стадии развития являются процессы образования нервных связей в коре полушарий головного мозга — у слоеных рефлексов.

Нервная деятельность коры головного мозга впервые была изучена И. П. Павловым. К числу важнейших законов и принципов, открытых Павловым, прежде

80 • Часть I. Введение в общую психологию

всего следует отнести принцип замыкания у слов -пых (временных) нервных связей (рис. 3.6). Он заключается в следующем. Если при достаточно сильном возбуждении участка коры под влиянием раздражителя, вызывающего врожденную реакцию (безусловный рефлекс) (Б), в другом участке коры создается возбуждение действием раздражителя (В), который сам но себе не вызывает определенного безусловного рефлекса (А), т. е. является нейтральным, то это второе возбуждение вступает в связь с первым. В результате при многократном повторении такой связи нейтральный раздражитель (например, звуки или свет) будет самостоятельно вызывать ту же реакцию (например, слюноотделение), которую до этого вызывал безусловный раздражитель (например, нища). Раздражитель, бывший до этого нейтральным, превращается теперь в условный раздражитель, а вызванный им рефлекс становится условным рефлексом (Г). Следовательно, в результате многократного повторения процедуры происходит замыкание новой нервной связи. Далее, в своих исследованиях Павлов открыл принцип торможения этих связей. При этом Павлов выделял два типа торможения: внешнее и внутреннее. Если во время действия условного раздражителя начнет действовать какой-либо новый, посторонний раздражитель, то условный рефлекс не проявится, — он затормозится.

Fig. З.Ь. Образование условного рефлекса у животных (по И. П. Павлову). Объяснения в тексте

В этом случае мы сталкиваемся с явлением внешнего торможения. Примером внутреннею торможения является угасание условного рефлекса. Если условный раздражитель (например, звук или свет) несколько раз подряд не подкрепляется безусловным раз дражителем (например, нищей), то этот условный раздражитель перестает вызывать условный рефлекс — наступает его временное торможение.

Следующим принципом, установленным в исследованиях Павлова, был принцип генерализации и концентрации возбуждения в коре полушарий. Он выражается в том, что всякий условный раздражитель дает сначала генерализованное («разлитое») возбуждение, которое затем при определенных условиях начинает концентрироваться в определенных участках коры. Если, например, условный рефлекс вырабатывается в ответ на какой-либо раздражитель, то первоначально его будут вызывать и многие другие сходные раздражители (например, другие звуки). Но если безусловным раздражителем (пищей) будет подкрепляться толь-

Глава 3. Понятие о психике и ее эволюции • 81

Names

Pavlov Ivan Petrovich (1849-1936) - an outstanding Russian physiologist, Nobel Prize winner, went down in history as the creator of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. He received the Nobel Prize in 1904, for work on digestion and blood circulation. As a result of his research, Pavlov came to the conclusion that there is a complex relationship between the effects of environmental factors on the body and the behavior of animals. In his teaching, the unconditional, innate reflexes that arise in response to certain (unconditional) stimuli from the external environment, and the conditioned reflexes that arise after first linking an indifferent stimulus with an unconditional, are the units of behavior.

The development of theoretical views and analysis of experimental work allowed Pavlov to develop a study on two signaling systems, where the first system

Ma is sensory, and the second is speech associated with the word. He also developed the concept of the analyzer, put forward the theory of the types of the nervous system, created an international scientific school.

to one strictly defined sound stimulus, the reflexes in response to other sounds will slow down, - the conditioned reflex will differentiate.

Pavlov also discovered the law of mutual induction of the processes of excitation and inhibition. This law is as follows. If one area of ​​the cortex is in a state of excitement, then in other parts of the cortex, functionally connected with it, inhibition occurs; and vice versa, if the conditioned stimulus causes inhibition in a certain part of the cortex, in other areas, according to the law of induction, excitation arises.

The presence of the mechanisms described above, as well as the possibility of a substantive perception of the world around it, allow the formation of certain behavioral skills in animals . Therefore, the development of animals with similar mechanisms and abilities, is at the stage of skills and subject perception.

The main feature of this stage is the consolidation of the formed movements, that is, the animal can repeatedly make movements in the corresponding situation, which form the basis of the acquired skill. At the same time, the form of consolidation of sensory experience changes: the animal first appears in the show. For example, if you hide the bread in one place and the meat in another, then take the dog to a place where there is no meat, the dog will first run to the place where the meat is hidden, and then to the place where it is hidden bread. This suggests that the dog reproduces the image of the external environment, i.e., is an idea of ​​it. The given example also makes it possible to say that in animals at the stage of skills and objective perception not only motor but also figurative memory develops.

Of course, not only memory is developed in animals. For example, if sound is used as an impact, - one sound is associated with such a biologically important effect as food, and the other is not supported by anything, then the animal

82 • Part I. Introduction to general psychology

From the history of psychology

Classic experiment I. P. Pavlov

Studying digestion, Pavlov noticed that with only one type of plate with food, the dog begins to salivate. The fact that any dog ​​has saliva, when food is put in its mouth, did not raise any questions. It was quite natural, but the dog, whom Pavlov watched, learned to associate the type of plate with food. Faced with the case of associative learning, Pavlov decided to find out whether it was possible to teach a dog to associate food with other stimuli, such as light or sound. In his classic experiment, Pavlov implanted a fistula into a dog's salivary gland to measure the amount of saliva secreted. Then a bowl was placed in front of the dog, into which food was automatically fed. The experimenter first turned on the light in the window in front of the dog, and then, after a few seconds, some food was fed into the bowl, and the light was turned off. The dog was hungry, therefore abundant salivation was noted. Excretion of saliva in a hungry dog ​​at the sight of food is an unconditional (innate) reflex. There is no learning here, so food is an absolute stimulus, and the light is generally a neutral stimulus. The dog did not initially react to it. However, this procedure was repeated many times: the light was first lit, then food was supplied.

As a result, it was found that the dog started salivating immediately when the light came on. Moreover, saliva began to stand out even when, after the light was ignited, food did not feed at all. Thus, the neutral stimulus — light — turned into a conditioned stimulus, and a conditioned reflex was formed in the dog.

Over the years, physiologists have developed many variants of the Pavlovian experiment, seeking to comprehensively study the mechanisms of formation and extinction of conditioned reflexes.

will react to the first sound and ignore the second. Therefore, the animal differentiates sounds. On the contrary, if we connect both sounds with one biologically significant effect, then the animal will react equally to any of these sounds. Therefore, the animal is able to make a certain generalization concerning biologically important effects. Thus, at this stage of development in animals, there arises the ability to distinguish and generalize exposure. However, these abilities cannot be interpreted as signs of thinking, since the ability to distinguish and generalize is mainly related to the biological role of exposure.

The next, highest stage in the development of animal behavior is called the stage of intellectual behavior, or intelligence. But you should immediately make a reservation: animal intelligence and human intelligence are not the same thing.

Thanks to the experiments conducted by Pavlov’s employees and his followers, today we have a clear idea of ​​the level of development of animals at this stage and about the features of the development of their intellect. In these experiments, a banana or an orange is suspended in the reach of the monkey (the shim

Chapter 3. The concept of the psyche and its evolution • 83

panze) location. In order to get food, it needs to use some devices, such as drawers or a stick. In these experiments, the distinctive features of animals that are at the stage of intellectual behavior were identified.

First, if at a lower stage of development, operations were formed gradually, by numerous trials and errors, then the stage of intellectual behavior is characterized first by a period of complete failure - many attempts, of which none is successful, and then, suddenly, to an animal comes the solution to the problem.

Secondly, if you repeat the experiment, the operation found, despite the fact that it was performed only once, will be reproduced relatively easily, that is, the monkey solves the problem immediately.

Thirdly, the monkey easily applies the found solution to the problem in other conditions similar to those in which the solution first appeared. For example, if after a monkey has learned to reach a fetus with a stick, to deprive it of this stick, then it will look for a similar object to solve the problem.

Fourth, animals at the stage of intellectual behavior are capable of combining in one act two consecutive independent operations, of which the first prepares the implementation of the second. For example, a monkey is in a cage with a banana suspended from the ceiling. Next to the cage are two sticks: short and long. A long stick lies at a distance inaccessible to the monkey, it can be reached using a short stick, which is very close. Since a monkey cannot reach a banana with a short stick, but it can reach a long one, it must first reach a long stick with a short stick and only then get a banana with a long stick.

Thus, during the transition to the third stage of animal development, there is a complication of their behavior. In the acts of behavior there is a phase of preparation for the execution of the main action. It is the presence of the preparation phase that makes up the characteristic feature of intellectual behavior. One can speak of intelligence when it becomes necessary to prepare for the implementation of an operation. At the same time, the new conditions for performing a certain operation cause not any “trial” actions in an animal, but an attempt to apply previously developed operations or skills.

It should also be noted that since the monkey is already able to connect two such subjects as the stick and the fruit, respectively, the level of intellectual behavior is characterized by the presence of some ability to generalize relationships and connections of things. The anatomical and physiological basis for the emergence and development of intelligence in animals is a fairly high level of development of the cerebral cortex, and in the first place - the frontal lobes. It has been experimentally proven that it is the so-called pre-frontal fields that determine the ability to perform two-phase tasks. If they are removed, the animal loses its ability to perform complex tasks.

Thus, we considered the main stages of behavior development in various animals. These stages are described by A. N. Leontiev. Later, on the basis of the latest zoopsychological data, K.E. Fabry developed Leontyev's views and once worked on the concept of developing the Leontyev-Fabry psyche. In this concept

84 • Part I. Introduction to General Psychology

there are two stages. The first - the stage of elementary sensory psyche - has two levels: lower and higher. The second, the stage of perceptual psyche, has three levels: the lowest, the highest, and the highest. The basis of the selection of these two stages of development of the psyche are the main characteristics of ways of obtaining information about the world. For the first stage is characterized by sensory way, or the level of sensations. For the second, the perceptual method, or the level of perception (see Table 3.1).

It should be noted that in addition to this approach to the study of the development of the psyche of animals, there are others. For example, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, one of the first researchers who discovered the remains of a Sinanthropus, approaches this problem from an idealistic point of view. Speaking of the existence of an ideal beginning in the world, which develops together with the material one, he writes: “Both energies are physical and mental, being respectively

Table 3.1 Stages and levels of development of the psyche and behavior of animals

(according to A. N. Leontiev and K. E. Faboi) *

Stages and levels of mental reflection, its characteristics	Behavior characteristics associated with this stage and level	Types of creatures that have reached this level of development
1. Stage elementary sensor
Noah psyche
A. The lowest level. Primitive	A. Clear reactions to biologists scientifically significant properties of the medium through changes in speed and direction of motion. Elementary forms of movements. Weak plasticity of behavior. Unformed response ability to biologists chesky neutral, deprived properties of life environment. Weak, misaligned motional activity	A. The simplest, Many lower multicellular organisms living in the aquatic environment
elements of sensitivity. Irritability
B. Highest level. The presence of sensations. The appearance of the most important organ of manipulation - the jaws. Ability to	B. Clear reactions to biologically neutral stimuli. Developed physical activity (crawling, digging in	B. Higher (ringed) worms, gastropod mollusks (snails), some other invertebrates
formation of elementary conditioned reflexes	ground, swimming with the release of water on land). Ability to avoid environmental conditions, to leave
	from them, conduct an active search
	positive stimuli. Individual experience and learning play a small role. The main value in the behavior
	have hard congenital pro
	grams

* From: Silent R.S. Psychology: A textbook for students. higher ped. studies. Institutions: In 3 kN. Prince one:

General principles of psychology. - 2nd ed. - M .: Vlados, 1998.

Chapter 3. The concept of the psyche and its evolution • 85

The end of the table. 3.1
Stages and levels of mental reflection, its characteristics	Features of behavior associated with the villa stage and level	Types of creatures that have reached this level of development
Ii. Stage perceptual
psyche
A. Low level. Reflection external reality in shape images of objects. Ying tagging properties in a holistic image of things. Main organ ma nipulation - jaws	A. Motor Formation skills. Rigid prevail genetically programmed components. Mover very powerful abilities complex and diverse (diving crawling, walking, running, jumps, lasagna, flight and dr.). Active search positive irritants, avoidance negative (harmful) times twisted protective behavior	A. Pisces and other lower call as well as (partly) some higher surrender night (arthropods and heads) monogy clams). Naseko mye
B. Highest level. Elemen container forms of thinking (re task solving). Folding a certain "Pictures of the world"	B. Highly developed instinctive	B. Higher Vertebrates
nye forms of behavior. Way	tsy and some mammal
ness to learning	those)
B. The highest level. Allotment in practice special features but research, prep significant phase. Way to decide the same for country house by different methods. Re the nose of the once found prin Tsip problem solving in new conditions. Creation and use the activity of the primitive tools. Ability to by environmental awareness regardless of personal biological needs. Immediate discretion and causation investigative links between phenomena in practical actions (iisayt)	B. Isolation is specialized	B. Monkeys, some others
of the manipulative organs	higher vertebrates (dogs,
paws n hands. Research development	dolphins)
shi behaviors
using rapeseed
acquired knowledge, ability
and skills

the outer and inner sides of the world ... are constantly connected and in some way transform into each other. " As a result of this interaction, various forms of the psyche appear.

In conclusion, we can say the following.

First, the method and level of adaptation of animals to the conditions of existence is determined by the degree of development of the psyche of animals. Available scientific material allows you to select several stages of development of the psyche of animals. These stages differ in the way and level of obtaining information about the environment.

86 • Part I. Introduction to General Psychology

a world that impels the animal to action. In one case - this is the level of individual sensations, in the other - the objective perception.

Secondly, the highest level of development of the psyche of animals that are at the stage of subject perception allows us to speak about the simplest intellectual behavior of animals. However, a feature of animal behavior is basically the satisfaction of their basic biological needs.

test questions

1. State the essence of the concept of "psyche."

2. What do you know the main stages of the development of the psyche?

3. What is “irritability”, “sensitivity”, “sensation”?

4. Tell us about behavior as a form of adaptation to environmental conditions.

5. Explain the essence of the concept of "consciousness."

6. What is “I-concept” and what is its role in the regulation of human behavior?

7. What do you know the basic functions of the psyche?

8. What do you know about the origin of consciousness?

9. What is instinctive behavior?

10. What are the main stages of development of the psyche and behavior of animals.

11. What are the main characteristics of the nodular, reticular and chordal nervous systems?

12. Give the concept of conditioned reflexes as the physiological basis of animal behavior.

13. Name the distinctive characteristics of the intellectual behavior of animals.

14. What do you know about the concept of Leontiev-Fabri?

Recommended literature

1. Ananyev B. G. Selected psychological works: In 2 tons. T. 1 / Ed. A. A. Boda-lev, B. F. Lomov. - M .: Pedagogy, 1980.

2. Bassich F.V. The problem of "unconscious". (On unconscious forms of higher. Nervous activity). - M .: Medicine, 1968.

3. Vygotsky, L. S. [ The development of the personality and the worldview of the child]. Psychology of the personality. Texts: Reader under the editorship of Yu. B. Hippreprater. - M .: MGU, 1982.

4. .VygotskyL. C. Collected Works: Wb-tit.T. 1 .: Questions of theory and history of psychology / Ch. ed. A, V. Zaporozhets. - M .: Pedagogy, 1982.

5. Gipepeireiter Yu. B. Introduction to general psychology: A course of lectures: A manual for universities. - M .: ChsRo, 1997.

6. Grimak L.P. Reserves of the human psyche. Introduction to the psychology of activity. - 2nd ed., Ext. - M .: Politizdat, 1989.

7. Jeme B. Variety of religious experience. - SPb .: Andreev and sons, 1992.

8. Delgado X. Brain and consciousness / Per. from English by ed. G. D. Smirnov. - M .: Mir, 1971.

9. Kravkpv S.V. Self-observation. - M., 1922.

10. Leontiev, A.N., Selected Psychological Works: In 2 tons. T. 2, Ed. Century Century Davydov and others - M .: Pedagogy, 1983. I.LeongpievA. / Y. Activity Consciousness. Personality. - 2-drive. - M .: Politizdat, 1977.

12. Luria A.R. Evolutionary Introduction to Psychology. - M .: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1975.

13. Silent R.S. Psychology: Textbook for students. higher ped. studies. Institutions: In 3 kN. Prince one:

General principles of psychology. - 2nd ed. - M .: Vlados 1998.

14. Psychology / Ed. prof. K. N. Kornilov, prof. A. A. Smirnova., Prof. B.M. Teplova. - Ed. 3rd, nererab. and doi — М.: Учпедгиз, 1948.

15. Симонов П. В. Мотивированный мозг: Высшая нервная деятельность и естественнонаучные основы общей психологии / Отв. ed. V.S. Rusinov. - M .: Science, 1987.

16. Fabry K. E. Fundamentals of zoopsychology: Textbook for universities. - M .: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1976.

17. Uznadze D. N. Psychological studies. - M .; Spider, 1966.