Lecture
A counselor, like other professionals, bears ethical responsibility and has obligations. The counselor is accountable to the client, and may also be accountable to the client's family members, to the organization in which he or she works, to society at large, and, finally, to the profession itself. Such responsibility underscores the particular importance of ethical principles in psychological counseling, which are set out in the codes of professional ethics created in various countries that regulate the professional activity of the psychotherapist and counseling psychologist.
Ethical issues take on considerable significance in psychotherapy and counseling, arising both during the establishment of contact with the person seeking help and in the process of providing assistance and achieving its results. The first question that arises when a psychotherapist meets a patient concerns the latter's consent to undergo psychotherapy. Is psychotherapy possible without a wish for it? The need to raise such a question took shape within humanistic psychotherapy. The first unambiguous answer to it was given in "new wave" psychotherapy: psychotherapy is conducted only at the client's wish. Moreover, from the standpoint of new approaches in psychotherapy, the right to decide what is needed for healing is granted to the patient himself.
The client's decision to enter into a "counseling contract" must be fully informed, so the counselor is obliged, during the first meeting, to provide the client with as much information as possible about the counseling process:
about the main goals of counseling;
about his or her qualifications;
about the approximate duration of counseling;
about the appropriateness of counseling;
about the risk of a temporary worsening of the condition during the counseling process;
about the limits of confidentiality.
The counselor is obliged to correctly assess the level and limits of his or her professional competence. He must not instill in the client hope for help that he is not able to provide.
In counseling, the use of insufficiently mastered diagnostic and therapeutic procedures is not permitted. Counseling sessions with clients must never be used to test any methods or techniques of counseling.
If, in certain cases, a counselor feels that he lacks sufficient competence, he is obliged to consult more experienced colleagues and improve his skills under their guidance.
It is very important to agree with the client in advance on the possibility of audio and video recording of counseling sessions and observation by a third party through a one-way mirror. The use of such procedures without the client's consent is not permitted.
The ethics of a counselor's professional activity places special restrictions on how the counselor handles information about the client's personal life.
One should not display excessive curiosity (a counselor should not resemble a detective). Only that information about the client which is necessary for understanding his or her problems is important. If the counselor forces the client to disclose excessively, the client experiences discomfort after the visit, feels guilt, and often discontinues counseling.
Professional secrecy must be observed. If, for some reason, the counselor is obliged to share information about the client with others (for example, during supervision of the counseling), the client must be informed of this.
The issue of confidentiality should be discussed during the first meeting with the client. It is the duty of every counselor to use information about the client only for professional purposes. The counselor has no right to disclose information about the client for other purposes. Information about clients (the counselor's notes, individual client files) must be kept in places inaccessible to outsiders.
In ensuring confidentiality, the counselor must acquaint the client with the circumstances under which professional secrecy is not maintained. Materials from counseling sessions that are necessary for the counselor's effective work are not subject to confidentiality rules (for example, it is possible to provide counseling materials to an expert by agreement with the client).
Among the most frequently cited circumstances under which the operation of confidentiality rules in counseling may be limited, the following deserve mention: an increased risk to the life of the client or other people; criminal acts (violence, corruption of minors, incest, etc.) committed against minors; the need for the client's hospitalization; the involvement of the client and other persons in drug trafficking and other criminal activities.
Having learned during counseling that the client poses a serious threat to someone, the counselor is obliged to take measures to protect the potential victim (or victims) and to inform them (him/her), their parents, relatives, and law enforcement agencies of the danger. The counselor must also inform the client of his intentions.
Another important ethical principle is the prohibition of dual relationships. It is inappropriate to counsel relatives, friends, colleagues, or students being taught by the counselor; sexual contact with clients is impermissible. This prohibition is quite understandable, since counseling places the specialist in a position of advantage, and there is a risk that in personal relationships this advantage could be exploited.
An important ethical issue concerns questions of freedom and responsibility in counseling. Counseling and psychotherapeutic approaches that emphasize "free will," the free development of the personality, and awareness of a person's responsibility for shaping their own inner world and choosing their life path are collectively referred to as existential counseling (psychotherapy). Existential counseling has a genetic kinship with the existential movement in philosophy – the philosophy of existence. The central concept of existentialism is existence (human existence) as an undivided unity of object and subject. A person comprehends their existence in borderline and extreme states (struggle, suffering, death), thereby attaining their freedom, which is precisely the choice of their own essence. In a broader sense, existential psychotherapy is understood as the humanistic movement in psychotherapy as a whole. At the core of Sartre's philosophical anthropology is the concept of freedom, which he defines as the choice of one's own being: a person is what they freely choose to be. Freedom is expressed in the possibility of choosing one's attitude toward a given situation. The first principle of existentialism: a person "is nothing else but what he makes of himself." A person is directed toward the future and projects themselves into it, becoming what their project of being is. Thus, "man is responsible for what he is"15. Understanding responsibility for one's life choices, together with the possibility of personally influencing changes in one's own life, helps a person regain lost faith in themselves. Whoever decides to make a choice becomes free. In providing psychological help, it is important for the psychologist (psychotherapist) to remember that they have no right to impose any decision on the client, nor the right to take responsibility for the client's choice, while respecting the client's right to self-determination.
Another ethical issue is the problem of the patient's dependence on the psychotherapist. The psychotherapist may also find themselves unconsciously dependent on the patient, since communicating with them can contribute to self-affirmation. The goal of psychological counseling is not for the counselor to solve the client's problems, but to create optimal conditions for activating the resources of the person seeking help so that they can independently cope with difficulties, regain their own control over their life, and realize their life plans. The counselor's awareness of this helps establish an ecological attitude in the relationship, one in which the client regains confidence in the significance of their own creative powers, and also helps prevent the client's dependence on the counselor.
+Another very important ethical issue in the professional activity of the counselor is the problem of constant attention to one's own emotional well-being, personal and professional growth, and the timely resolution of significant life problems in order to reduce the risk of harming the client (for example, in the form of transferring one's own traumatic experience onto the interaction with the client through transference and countertransference). To this end, the counseling psychologist may themselves resort to personal counseling as well as to professional consultation – supervision.
Supervision– the process of reflecting on professional difficulties in order to reduce the risk of harming the client. Its conditions include the presence of a professional supervisor or supervision group. The criterion for supervision is professional questions and problems. When personal issues arise during the supervision process, the counselor may turn to a personal counselor or to a psychotherapist.
… This is what happened in 1953 with a psychiatrist named W. Mendel, who was at that time working at St. Elizabeths Hospital in Washington – one of the largest psychiatric hospitals in the United States. Mendel headed a ward where the patients were predominantly natives of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Most of them had been hospitalized because of hostile or aggressive behavior; some were considered so dangerous that they were kept in straitjackets, and Mendel visited them accompanied by two bodyguards. Communication with the patients was further complicated by the fact that they spoke almost no English, and Mendel did not know Spanish.
At that time a new tranquilizer appeared - reserpine, which seemed to give excellent results. The administrators of St. Elizabeth's Hospital decided to conduct trials of this tranquilizer using the double-blind method.
The people conducting the trials and dispensing pills to their patients did not know that some of the pills contained the drug while others were simply sweetened dummy pills. In other words, they did not know whether the patients belonged to the experimental group that actually received reserpine or to the control group used to test the placebo effect.
The experiment continued for several months, but very soon Mendel became convinced that the drug had an excellent effect on his patients. Within a few days their aggressiveness dropped sharply, and communication between them and the psychiatrist became increasingly friendly, so much so that it was even possible to remove the straitjackets.
Mendel had no doubt whatsoever that reserpine would revolutionize the treatment of patients of this type, and he eagerly awaited the results obtained in the other wards. Imagine his astonishment when, at the end of the experiment, he learned that his patients were among those who had been given sweetened pills without any reserpine at all the entire time.
How, then, could the changes in his patients' behavior be explained? Analyzing his own behavior, Mendel was forced to admit, that it alone was the cause of these changes. From the very start of the experiment, Mendel had genuinely imagined that his charges were receiving reserpine and therefore could not help but become calmer; he began treating them accordingly, trying to see in their gestures, glances, or smiles signs heralding an improvement in their condition (whereas before he had only paid attention to manifestations of aggressiveness). The patients, in turn, responded by becoming calmer simply because they began to be treated as full-fledged human beings. Thus their behavior changed not because of the drug's effect, but because of how they came to be treated.
The nature of the counseling contact within the counseling process itself depends on the counselor's theoretical orientation (George, Cristiani, 1990).
Table. Contemporary views on the counseling contact
|
Approach |
Counseling contact |
|
Psychoanalytic approach |
The counselor maintains personal anonymity so that the client can freely project their feelings onto him. The main focus is on reducing the resistance that arises when analyzing the client's transference reactions, and on establishing more rational control. The counselor interprets the material supplied by the client and seeks to teach the client to link their present behavior with events from the past |
|
Adlerian approach |
Emphasis is placed on sharing responsibility between counselor and client, mutual trust and respect, equality of positions, and establishing shared counseling goals |
|
Behavior therapy |
The counselor is an active and directive party; he plays the role of teacher and coach, seeking to teach the client more effective behavior. The client must actively try out new ways of behaving. Instead of a personal relationship between counselor and client, a working relationship is established for carrying out the learning procedures |
|
Rational-emotive therapy (A. Ellis) |
The counselor plays the role of teacher, and the client that of student. No significance is attached to the personal relationship between counselor and client. The client is encouraged toward understanding their problems and, on the basis of this understanding — toward changing their behavior, based on rational premises |
|
Client-centered therapy (C. Rogers) |
The counseling contact constitutes the essence of the counseling process. Particular emphasis is placed on sincerity, warmth, empathy, respect, and support on the part of the counselor, and on "conveying" these attitudes to clients. The skills acquired during the counseling contact are carried over by the client into other relationships |
|
Existential therapy |
The counselor's main task is to enter into the client's existence and to establish an authentic connection with them. Through contact with the counselor, the client reveals their uniqueness. The relationship between counselor and client is understood as a "person-to-person" contact, identical to the meeting of two equal people "here and now." During the counseling contact, both the counselor and the client change |
As can be seen from the table, from the standpoint of various theoretical orientations the "counselor - client" contact:
or creates the preconditions for change to begin (behavior therapy and rational-emotive therapy);
or spontaneously changes the client (client-centered therapy or existential therapy);
or constitutes the very content of discussion and work (the psychodynamic orientation).
+Thus, although representatives of, for example, the existential-humanistic and psychodynamic orientations use the counseling contact differently in specific work, they are unanimous in their opinion of its importance in the counseling process (Prochaska, 1979).
Transference and countertransference can occur in a counseling situation. This refers to the transfer of feelings, drives, and attitudes from «there and then» to «here and now» and vice versa. Such a transposition is carried out by the client toward the counselor (transference) and by the counselor toward the client (countertransference).
Thetransferencereaction represents a repetition of the past and is inappropriate in the present. Transference is always erroneous in the sense that the other person is seen in a false light, i.e., traits characteristic of other people in other circumstances and times are attributed to him. It is important for the counselor to distinguish realistic reactions from transference reactions.
Transference can be positive or negative. Positive transference is based on feelings of security and love experienced in childhood, or on the need for them. For example, a client who lacked love in childhood tends to see the counselor as a stronger and more loving person than he actually is. Negative transference is based on feelings of rejection and hostility experienced in childhood. If these attitudes are not changed in counseling, therapy becomes impossible.
The emergence of transference is fostered by the counselor's neutrality and ambiguity. Neutrality is not identical to indifference or a lack of caring. It means that the counselor is impartial and does not impose his values on the client. Ambiguity means concealing one's feelings, attitudes, and life events from the client.
Transference — is an unconscious process. Transference more often arises in areas where there are unresolved childhood conflicts with significant persons.
Although the client's feelings toward the counselor may be quite conscious, the fact that they are carried over from other, earlier relationships is not recognized. In psychodynamically oriented counseling, the counselor encourages the client to become aware of such transference.
The possibility of transference in counseling and psychotherapy is now recognized, to a greater or lesser degree, by representatives of nearly all theoretical orientations. Transference is an integral part of the counseling (therapeutic) contact. In psychotherapy and counseling, the value of transference is very great. It allows one to penetrate the client's past and see how early experience linked to significant persons (parents, close relatives) modifies present reactions. This is very important in cases where behavioral disorders and personal problems are constantly «fed» by insidious transference reactions. The counselor, being the object of transference, interprets the projections and gives the client the opportunity to look at his behavior from the perspective of causality, in order to free himself from the traumas and fantasies of the past. Such work gives counseling the character of a «correction of emotional experience.»
The decision whether to make transference an object of discussion is equivalent to choosing between surgery and conservative treatment. The first option leads to significant internal changes, while the second more often preserves the status quo. Of course, the choice is always determined by the specific situation. In some cases it is not recommended to go too deeply into the client's transference reactions and their interpretation:
when there is a distorted perception of reality;
when there is insufficient time to work with transference (short-term counseling or psychotherapy);
when there is no normal working alliance with the client;
when, due to weakened psychological defense mechanisms, the client cannot tolerate anxiety and frustration;
when the goal of counseling is not the resolution of deep-seated conflicts but, for example, adaptation to current life situations.
However, one should not forget about the problems that arise from unresolved transference when the counseling contact is terminated, when the client's intense love for the idealized counselor (positive transference) or hatred toward him (negative transference) is left undiscussed. Therefore, the counselor should not ignore the client's feelings. They must be discussed, of course with the appropriate depth of discussion chosen.
The transformation of transference in the course of counseling resembles the emotional development of a child. The child gradually moves from viewing the parents as omnipotent and all-knowing to a more realistic approach, evaluating them as relatively ordinary people who nevertheless occupy a special, important place in his emotional world. Similarly, the client, in the course of counseling, begins to evaluate the counselor more realistically; the experience of the contact becomes an integral part of the client's own psyche. Transference essentially creates the conditions for the internalization of the counselor and contributes to the formation of a specific but reliable authority to which one can turn in times of difficulty in life.
When clients express feelings in one way or another, the counselor should treat this with understanding. They are showing genuine feelings, though often unrealistic ones. If the counselor accepts the client's feelings, even without responding to them, and does not allow the client to experience a sense of rejection, the counseling becomes deeper and more intense.
Countertransference. Since the counseling contact is like a two-way street, it is clear that the counselor also brings his or her own life difficulties into the relationship with the client. Countertransference is just as universal a phenomenon in psychological counseling and psychotherapy as transference. Regardless of the maturity of the counselor's personality, he or she is a human being and inevitably has unresolved inner conflicts. Countertransference is generated by painful topics if the client inadvertently touches upon them. The most common causes of countertransference are as follows.
The counselor's desire to be liked by clients, to be accepted by them and evaluated favorably.
The counselor's fear that the client might think badly of him or her, might not come again, and so on.
An excessive reaction to clients who provoke feelings in the counselor rooted in his or her own inner conflicts.
The tendency to take a prophetic stance and give clients intrusive advice about how they should live.
+Is countertransference therapeutic or antitherapeutic? Does it help or hinder counseling? Is it good or bad in itself? The answers to these questions depend on whether the countertransference manifests itself in the form of overt behavior or represents only the counselor's internal experiences. In the first case, we mean actions based on inner conflicts, and, of course, such countertransference must be discussed with a colleague or in special professional groups, because uncontrolled and poorly recognized countertransference undermines the counselor's objectivity. As an internal experience, countertransference can prove quite valuable (Gelso, Fretz, 1992), since it helps the counselor better understand what effect the client's behavior has on him or her and on other people. In any case, the influence of countertransference on the course of counseling depends on the counselor's willingness and readiness to examine the origins of his or her true feelings toward clients.
In training aimed at building the professional readiness of novice counselors to provide psychological help in crisis situations, a whole series of special psychotechnical exercises is used, aimed in particular at the practical grasp of the meaning of various positions in counseling. We invite your attention to a description of how one of these exercises is carried out in a group.
In a training group for novice counselors, participants are asked to pair up and imagine that one of them is the counselor and the other is the client. Your task is to silently enter into psychological contact, sitting next to each other, facing one another. Imagine that a pause suddenly arises in the course of the conversation, when no words are spoken and no gestures are made. The only possible form of contact during this pause is eye contact. For the first two minutes of communication, the counselor, looking into the client's eyes, silently repeats to himself the same phrase addressed to the client: "You are the problem." For the second two minutes – the phrase – "You have a problem," for the next two minutes – the phrase: "You have a problem, but you will cope with it," two minutes after that – "You have a problem, but together we will cope with it," and finally say the phrase: "You and I, together, are parts of something greater."
Then the partners switch roles. The counselor becomes the client. Now the same phrases are addressed to the one who was first in the role of counselor. At the end of the exercise, participants are invited to share the sensations they experienced the first and second time and to discuss which of the set phrases contributed to a more positive sense of well-being? How did the dynamics of the sensory perception of oneself and one's partner change?
Strange as it may seem, these different phrases are verbally expressed analogues of various kinds of attitudes on the counselor's part in the process of communication, read by the client on an unconscious level. These phrases represent different counseling positions.
The positions noted as most comfortable for the counselor are the ones most acceptable and "resourceful" for you. The counselor's positions that turned out to be most comfortable for the client are the positions that activate the client's resources. The resourceful positions of the counselor and of the client may differ even within the same person. Suppose that in the role of counselor, the most appealing position turns out to be: "You have a problem, but together we will cope with it," while in the role of client, the strongest positive experiences are associated with the position: "…you will cope with it."
Our experience of training work shows that people experience the most vivid impressions and the strongest sensations in the position of interaction expressed by the phrase: "You and I – are parts of something greater." A person going through a crisis turns out not to be alone. It is precisely this co-presence of the Other in the world that helps a person cope with the experience of what seems to be insurmountable.
+«You are the problem» is an evaluative stance that backs the client «into a corner.» Moreover, in this case the person becomes fully and entirely identified with the problem. «You have a problem» is a detached stance of the counselor, who sees someone else’s problem but at the same time distances himself through his passive position, his non-involvement. The client starts to feel alone with their problem.
«You have a problem, but you will cope with it» is a position that activates the client’s resource processes. «We will cope together» is a position of the counselor’s genuine co-participation. But different clients, and the different states they are experiencing, may respond unevenly to this position. For some it turns into an expectation that the counselor will provide the solution. For others it becomes a sense that their personal life space, the space of their own destiny, is being intruded upon.
«We are together, you and I – parts of something greater» is a position of equality between counselor and client, one that does not raise the question of guilt or responsibility for what is happening, unobtrusively overcomes fixation on the problem and the pain, and expands the boundaries of one’s life space.
In every event there are many different positions, or points of view, from which it can be experienced. Simplifying, four basic positions can be distinguished:
1st position: The position of the person who performs, experiences, or receives the event itself. The main participant, the center of events.
2nd position: The position of another person who is also involved in the event. This may be a secondary participant, or someone who provides the experience for the person in the first position.
3rd position: The position of an observer of how the event unfolds. Not an active participant, but someone present at the scene of the action.
4th position: The position of someone who is not present at the scene of the action, but receives information about it from a distance.
For example, if Joe is getting a haircut from a barber, then Joe is in the first position (1P). The barber is in the second position (2P). Another client waiting their turn is in the third position (3P). Joe’s wife, who is waiting for him at home, is in the fourth position (4P).
Experiences from different positions differ greatly. When a person experiences an event from several different positions, they perceive it far more fully.
Changing the perceptual position can be a useful addition to any process. In fact, it is a stand-alone technique in its own right. A person is often fixed in one of the positions, and experiencing the situation from other positions can reveal to them the full essence of the topic being discussed.
When conducting a dialogue, perceptual positions can be used simply as another source of possible questions. Perceptual positions are especially useful when it is clear that the client is perceiving the situation from only one position – and especially when that single position is limited.
C: “It’s very hard for me, because my boss dumps all the work on me”
F: “And what do you think he feels about that?” (1P -> 2P)
C: “He accused me again and we argued loudly”
F: “What do you think the people nearby heard?” (1P -> 3P)
C: “I heard that ginseng gives a person more energy”
F: “And how would you feel if you had more energy?” (4P -> 1P)
Changing the perceptual position is a good way to offer the client possibilities that are not accessible from their limited position.
C: “I’m stuck in a tight spot”
F: “And what would Superman do?” (1P -> 3P)
C: “I feel such helplessness watching her get into bigger and bigger trouble”
F: “And if you were in her place, what would you do?” (3P -> 1P)
Shifting perceptual positions is part of the procedure in some techniques. Experiencing events from different points of view is based on the same idea. If an event can comfortably be experienced from any of these points of view, it will inevitably become clearer.
Uniting opposites involves built-in shifts of position. We move a particular behavior from position 1 to position 3, we place its parts in position 2 relative to each other, we unite them, and then we move the behavior back into position 1.
The return of lost parts is generally carried out from the standpoint of the second position. Fluent command of shifts in perceptual position is one of the facilitator’s most elegant tools. Different positions have different advantages and disadvantages in different circumstances, and the better a facilitator can make use of these positions, the faster they can bring the client to what they want to achieve.
+Positive feelings and impulses are most effective in the first position, when the person actually feels and experiences them. So if a client perceives their positive feelings from some other position, we should move them into those feelings.
The first position is involved. The other three positions are detached. Unwanted feelings do the most damage in the first position. But at least they are accessible there. In the end, we need to transform them in the third or fourth position.
Undesirable behavior is difficult to transform in the first position. But when we move it to the second position, the client can examine it and do something about it. A desired ability can be explored in someone else in the third position, and then tried on for oneself in the first position.
What are the basic rules of psychological counseling?
What does the counselor's observance of the rule of non-judgmental attitude toward the client contribute to?
What position should the counselor maintain in interaction with the client?
What does the principle of distribution of responsibility mean in the counseling process?
What restrictions on handling information does the rule of confidentiality impose?
What experimental data does the principle of the counselor's focus on the resourceful sides of the client's personality rely on?
What six main conditions for positive personality change during counseling did C. Rogers identify?
What is understood by the counseling contact?
What determines the nature of the counseling contact? How is the counseling contact understood in various theoretical approaches to counseling?
What is included among the emotional components of helping (therapeutic) relationships?
What types of interpersonal relationships did M. Buber identify? What should be the nature of helping relationships in counseling and psychotherapy according to M. Buber?
What are the skills for maintaining counseling contact? Give a description of each group of skills.
What is understood by transference and countertransference in counseling? Why does a psychologist need to track these phenomena during counseling interaction?
When is it appropriate to apply confrontation skills in counseling?
What positions of interaction and positions of perception are distinguished in the course of counseling interaction? Which of these positions are the most effective in counseling? What possibilities does skillful combination of different positions of perception give the counselor when communicating with the client?
What requirements are placed on the personal qualities of the counselor?
What kind of professional training must a counselor undergo?
What is understood by burnout syndrome?
List the necessary conditions for conducting psychological counseling.
Compliance with which principles does a counselor's professional ethics presuppose?
What is supervision?
1. Complete the sentence.
Most specialists are increasingly inclined to conclude that the main condition for the effectiveness of counseling is a … relationship between the client and the counselor.
2. Choose the correct answer.
… identified 6 conditions conducive to positive changes in personality:
1) the client and the counselor are in psychological contact,
2) the client is in a state of psychological distress,
3) the counselor actively participates in the communication,
4) the counselor experiences unconditional respect for the client,
5) experiences empathy, and
7) expresses their understanding and respect.
3. Complete the sentence.
A unique dynamic process during which one person helps another use their inner resources to develop in a positive direction and actualize the potential for a meaningful life is called …
4. Choose the correct answer.
From the point of view of …, the counselor is the active and directive party; he plays the role of a teacher, coach, striving to teach the client more effective behavior.
5. Exclude the odd one out.
The emotional components of helping (therapeutic) relationships include
6. Complete the sentence.
According to M. Buber, when participating in … relationships, we perceive other people while standing at an egocentric point of view.
7. Exclude the odd one out.
The skills for maintaining counseling contact include:
8. Choose the correct answer.
The inadequate and perseverative experience of feelings, drives, fantasies, attitudes, and the engagement of defense mechanisms that arose in the past in relationships with significant others, occurring during current interpersonal interaction, is called …
9. Fill in the blank.
… is characterized as a response reaction to the client's transference.
10. Choose the correct answer.
… in counseling is defined as any reaction of the counselor that contradicts the client's behavior.
11. Fill in the blank.
The most traditional and effective position in counseling is the position of …
12. Fill in the blank.
The first position of the counselor's perception is his individual point of view, the second position of perception – the client's point of view, the third position (metaposition) of perception– the ability to see oneself and those present …
13. Exclude the odd one out.
The conditions for conducting psychological counseling include:
14. Exclude the odd one out.
15. Fill in the blank.
… is a complex psychophysiological phenomenon defined as emotional, mental, and physical exhaustion resulting from prolonged emotional strain.
16. Fill in the blank.
… is the process of reflecting on professional difficulties during interaction with a more experienced professional in order to reduce the risk of harming the client (or consultation on professional issues).
17. Exclude the odd one out.
18. Insert the missing word.
By giving advice, the counselor fully takes on … for what happens in the client's life, and this … the development of his personality.
19. Match the following.
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1. Counselor |
A. is responsible for organizing the consultation |
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B. is responsible for the choices made during the counseling process |
|
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2. Client |
C. is responsible for the decisions made |
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D. is responsible for the psychotechnical equipping of the consultation
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