Lecture
Это окончание невероятной информации про .
...
armed force.
SPIRITUAL VIOLENCE – social activity based on various forms of spiritual coercion. These include: police surveillance of the spiritual life of the masses, ideological and psychological blackmail, struggle against opposing class ideas, the inculcation of religious fanaticism, the forcible imposition of reactionary ideas, and others.
POLITICAL VIOLENCE – the totality of political actions employed by some classes and social forces to suppress the will of other classes and states in order to achieve political domination or particular political and, along with them, economic advantages. In p. v. social violence finds its highest embodiment. P. v. permeates, in essence, all manifestations of social coercion.
Depending on the means of coercion employed, p. v. is divided into two types: armed and "peaceful", that is, unarmed violence. Unarmed political violence is a type of action involving recourse to relatively "peaceful", bloodless means and measures of coercing an adversary contrary to his fundamental interests. These include: the establishment of the dictatorship of a particular class by peaceful means, political strikes, demonstrations, the legislative restriction of political rights, the introduction of emergency laws, racial discrimination, diplomatic pressure, and others. Organized violence involving the use of weapons is the sharpest and most powerful type of political violence, an extreme method of political influence. Deep internal connections and mutual transitions always develop between "peaceful" and armed violence.
SOCIAL VIOLENCE – a form of relations between people that has a coercive character. In its various manifestations, violence appears as the action of some social forces against others with the aim of suppressing or subordinating their will through the application of coercive measures. As a means of achieving the goals of particular social forces, classes, social groups and states, it operates in various spheres of human activity and finds concrete expression in economic violence, political violence and spiritual violence.
ECONOMIC VIOLENCE – a method of social coercion involving the use of direct economic sanctions against various social forces in order to acquire or preserve material privileges and rights. The concrete forms of e. v. include: economic blockade, economic sanctions, economic pressure on other countries, the economic plunder of developing countries by monopolies, the restriction of people's economic rights, economic gangsterism, and others.
NATIONAL INTERESTS – these are objective needs whose realization ensures the stable functioning and development of society, the state and the individual. National interests act as the motivating impulses and root causes of political actions and undertakings, which are refracted in the form of foreign economic, foreign policy and military doctrines, concepts and programmes.
Classification of national interests:
a) by degree of importance: vitally important (basic), important, and peripheral interests;
b) by duration: short-term, medium-term, and long-term interests;
c) by spheres of application: economic, social, political, spiritual, military and other interests;
d) by the character of the interaction of the national interests of different states: confrontational, divergent, parallel, and shared interests;
e) by the character of their reflection in individual and public consciousness: adequately perceived and inadequately perceived interests.
NATIONAL INTERESTS– these are the totality of the balanced interests of the individual, society and the state in the economic, domestic political, social, international, informational, military, border, environmental and other spheres.
The interests of the individual consist in the realization of constitutional rights and freedoms, in ensuring personal security, in raising the quality and standard of living, and in the physical, spiritual and intellectual development of the human being and citizen.
The interests of society consist in the consolidation of democracy, in the creation of a law-governed, social state, in the attainment and maintenance of public accord, and in the spiritual renewal of Russia.
The interests of the state consist in the inviolability of the constitutional order, the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Russia, in political, economic and social stability, in the unconditional enforcement of legality and the maintenance of law and order, and in the development of equal and mutually beneficial international cooperation.
NEUTRALITY – a principle of a state's foreign policy activity presupposing its non-participation in armed conflicts and, in peacetime, its refusal to participate in military alliances and blocs. This principle is formalized as a special international legal status of the state.
The following types of neutrality are distinguished: 1) Permanent n., which is formalized in international legal form (Switzerland, Austria, Malta); 2) Treaty-based n., representing an agreement or treaty on the application of neutrality in relations between two or more states; 3) Traditional n. – a principle observed by a particular state over a long period of its existence and development, that is, one that has become a tradition (Sweden, Finland); 4) Positive – the principle and policy of individual states pursuing a policy of non-alignment with military blocs and alliances.
AREAS OF SECURITY – it is appropriate to distinguish the external and internal security of an object in accordance with the external and internal sources of threat that it faces. The terms most frequently encountered are "the external security of the state" and "the internal security of the state". The external security of a state is understood as its protection against adverse influences from outside, and internal security as protection against adverse disturbances and influences within the state itself (moreover, the sources of internal danger need not necessarily consist in anti-state intent or in the opposition of some social forces – the source of danger may also lie in unprofessional, passive or, conversely, excessively radical leadership of the country). The interconnection and interpenetration of the areas of external and internal security make it necessary that foreign and domestic policy be unified in order to ensure the security of the state.
DEFENCE CONSCIOUSNESS – in essence this is people's awareness of the necessity of defending the state and society against possible military attack, and the exclusion of aggressive intentions, attitudes and actions from a position of strength in relations with other countries and peoples. D. c. is based on a humanistic attitude toward war, differing from both militaristic and pacifist consciousness.
DEFENCE SPHERE – the most important component of the military sphere, associated with providing for the country's defence.
DEFENCE CAPABILITY OF THE STATE – the degree of a state's preparedness to defend itself against aggression. The d. c. of the s. is composed of material and spiritual elements.
OBJECTS OF SECURITY – the objects of security are those social and natural entities and structures toward which the activity of the subject in ensuring security is directed. The principal objects of security usually include: the individual (his rights and freedoms); society (its material and spiritual values) and the state (its constitutional order, sovereignty and territorial integrity). Under contemporary conditions one often speaks of the security of civil society, of the security of various kinds of social groups, of the security of civilization, of the security of humankind, etc.
COLLECTIVE SECURITY TREATY ORGANIZATION OF THE CIS COUNTRIES (CSTO) – its members at present are Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan. The organization's founding documents are: the CSTO Charter and the Agreement on the Legal Status of the CSTO (signed on 7 October 2002).
The chief governing body of the CSTO is the Collective Security Council (CSC), which comprises the heads of the organization's member states. The consultative and executive bodies of the CSTO are: the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs (CMFA), the Council of Ministers of Defence (CMD), and the Committee of Secretaries of Security Councils (CSSC). The permanently functioning bodies of the CSTO include: the Secretariat, which provides organizational, information-analytical and consultative support for the organization's activity, as well as the CSTO Joint Staff, which functions as the working body of the CMD. In the period between sessions of the CSC, matters of coordination and cooperation in implementing the decisions adopted are handled by the Permanent Council of Plenipotentiary Representatives, who are appointed by each CSTO state.
THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION (UN; United Nations Organization – UNO) – the United Nations Organization is an international organization of states created for the purpose of maintaining and strengthening peace and security and developing international cooperation. The UN Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by the participating states of the founding San Francisco Conference of 1945 and entered into force on 24 October 1945 (the date is observed as UN Day).
The principal organs of the UN are: the General Assembly (consisting of representatives of all UN member states), the Security Council (consisting of 5 permanent members – representatives of Great Britain, China, Russia, the USA and France – and 10 non-permanent members elected by the General Assembly for 2 years); the Economic and Social Council, the UN Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the UN Secretariat headed by the UN Secretary-General. The UN system also includes a number of specialized international organizations. The seat of UN Headquarters is New York City (USA).
WEAPON – devices and means intended for inflicting damage on the enemy in armed struggle. A w. usually consists of means of destruction and means of their delivery to the target; a more complex w. also includes control and guidance instruments and devices. In addition, a w. may include means of transportation. By the character of their destructive effect, modern w. are divided into weapons of mass destruction and conventional weapons.
WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION (WMD; weapons of mass annihilation) – weapons of great destructive capacity intended to inflict mass casualties or destruction. The existing types of W. of M. D. include chemical, biological and nuclear weapons. The use of science-intensive technologies makes it possible to create W. of M. D. based on qualitatively new principles.
THE PRINCIPAL PARAMETERS OF MILITARY DEVELOPMENT IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION – there are several fundamental requirements for the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation which determine the principal parameters of military development: the ability to carry out strategic deterrence; high combat and mobilization readiness; strategic mobility; a high degree of manning with well-trained and well-prepared personnel.
THE PRINCIPAL PRIORITIES OF MILITARY DEVELOPMENT IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION – are determined by the character of the tasks in the sphere of national security and by the geopolitical priorities of the country's development. The principal priorities for reforming and strengthening the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation at present and for the foreseeable future include:
Preserving the potential of the Strategic Deterrent Forces.
Increasing the number of permanent-readiness formations and units and forming troop groupings on their basis.
Improving the operational (combat) training of the troops (forces).
Improving the system of manning the Armed Forces
Implementing the programme for modernizing armaments and military and special equipment and maintaining them in a state of combat readiness.
Improving military science and military education.
Improving the systems of social provision for service members, of their upbringing and of moral-psychological preparation.
ATTITUDES TOWARD WAR – three principal approaches to war are usually distinguished: 1) the militaristic, in which war is depicted as romance and as a sphere for the display of a person's highest virtues; 2) the pacifist, which rejects all war, including defence against aggression; 3) the humanistic, in which war as a whole is condemned as something unnatural and hostile to human happiness, but war against an aggressor is perceived as a necessity, and therefore in it a person must, for the common good, sacrifice his happiness and, if required, his life. In public consciousness these approaches are found not only in "pure" form, but also in various combinations of them.
SEAT OF WAR – a region of the planet, a coalition of states, or a state where both the objective and the subjective foundations and conditions for the emergence of war have taken shape. Under certain conditions, war itself develops out of the seat of war. The growth of a seat of war into war is characterized by an aggravation of the situation, the appearance of a threatening period, an escalation of armed conflicts and armed clashes, and the actual outbreak of war.
MILITARY COUP – a form of the forcible change of state power as a result of which the political leadership of the country passes into the hands of representatives of the armed forces.
COUP D'ÉTAT – a political act of the forcible (illegitimate) seizure of power and the ensuing changes in the life of the state.
MILITARY VICTORY (VICTORY IN ARMED STRUGGLE) – combat success, the infliction of defeat on the enemy's troops, the accomplishment of the combat tasks set for a battle, an engagement, an operation, or the war as a whole. M. v. should be distinguished from victory in war.
VICTORY IN WAR – the attainment of the ultimate political, economic and other goals for the sake of which the war was waged.
OCCASION FOR WAR – circumstances (events, incidents) external to the war which do not of themselves give rise to war, but which cause the system of the causes of war to be "triggered", playing the role of a kind of "detonator".
GENERATIONS OF WARFARE – a term used by Western and Russian researchers in attempts to construct a historical classification of wars and armed conflicts.
MILITARY POLICY – a constituent part of the general policy of the state and of other actors (classes, social groups, parties, etc.), directly connected with the creation and development of the military organization and with the capacity and readiness to employ the means of armed struggle to achieve specific political goals.
POLITICAL AND MILITARY MEANS OF ENSURING NATIONAL SECURITY – the implementation of a policy of ensuring national security involves the use of both political and military means.
Political means are the instruments of the modern state (and of other political actors) which make it possible to attain political, economic and other goals without resorting to the open use of armed violence (this does not, however, exclude the use of violence in its other forms).
Military means are the instruments of the modern state which make it possible to attain the goals set through the use of armed violence in its various forms.
In practice, various combinations of political and military means are possible: 1) the decisive role of military means with political means playing an auxiliary role; 2) the relatively equal significance of these means; 3) the predominance of political means (the creation of an effective mechanism for blocking wars and conflicts); 4) the purely symbolic significance of military means, the disappearance of military danger and the establishment of guaranteed security.
MILITARY POTENTIAL OF THE STATE – represents the maximum quantity of forces and means that it can allocate from its aggregate potential in the interests of forming and building up its military might.
Structurally, the military potential of a state comprises military potential proper, as well as those parts of the economic, political, social, spiritual and other potentials of the state through which military potential proper is generated and which may be directed towards the achievement of internal and external military-political objectives, both in peacetime and in the course of a war.
DEFENSIVE POTENTIAL OF A STATE – the military potential of a state oriented towards implementing defensive military-doctrinal principles; the maximum capabilities available to the state for preventing war and for repelling aggression should it prove impossible to prevent war.
AGGREGATE POTENTIAL OF A STATE – the maximum capabilities (both those already realised and those as yet unrealised) available to the state in various spheres of life for accomplishing the tasks confronting it, both within the country and beyond its borders.
Structurally, the aggregate potential of a state constitutes a system of potentials:
Economic potential – characterises the general economic capabilities of the state, as recorded by the following indicators: national income; national income per capita; gross domestic product; gross national product; volume of industrial output; labour productivity in industry; volume of agricultural output; labour productivity in agriculture, and others;
Social potential – expresses the capabilities of society's social system, as recorded by a number of indicators: the nature of relations between classes and social groups; the nature of relations between ethnic communities; the breadth of the social base of state power; the degree and nature of popular support for the state's domestic and foreign policy;
Political potential – expresses the capabilities inherent in the political system of the state, the ability of that system to mobilise the country's material and spiritual forces in order to accomplish the tasks facing the state and society, as recorded by the following indicators: the legitimacy of political power; the effectiveness of political power; the resources of power; the stability of political power; the level of development of democracy; the nature of relations between the state and civil society;
Spiritual potential – the capabilities available to the state in the spiritual sphere of life for achieving its current objectives within the country and beyond its borders; the principal indicators of the development of spiritual potential are: the level of development of the levels and forms of social consciousness, the existence of a state and national idea, the degree to which the broad masses of the people accept and support the economic, socio-political and ethical conceptions and precepts instilled into public consciousness by the ruling circles;
Scientific potential – expresses the capacity of fundamental and applied science to contribute to solving cardinal theoretical and practical tasks in all spheres of the life of society; it is characterised by the following indicators: the level of development of science; the availability of qualified personnel; information provision; material and technical provision.
Military potential – the capabilities available to the military organisation of the state. Structurally, military potential includes: 1) the combat potential of the armed forces; 2) the capabilities of elements of the state's military organisation other than the armed forces; 3) the military mobilisation capabilities of the state.
In addition, contemporary political science literature also distinguishes demographic, informational and certain other types of potential.
PREVENTIVE USE OF MILITARY FORCE – pre-emptive, anticipatory actions by a political actor involving the use of military force to achieve stated political, economic and other objectives. If one adheres strictly to the UN Charter and its Article 51, preventive strikes constitute a violation of international law, since it is clearly stipulated there that a state may use force only in the event that it has been attacked.
CRITICAL THRESHOLD INDICATORS OF THE STATE OF AN ARMY – quantitative and qualitative indicators of the state of an army, a fall below the level of which makes its normal functioning as a state military organisation impossible. These indicators (based on international practice) may be presented as follows:
1) A fall in the level of manning with personnel to 70 % or below leads to the loss of combat capability.
2) A fall in the share of the latest models of weapons and combat equipment to 60 % or below leads to technical degradation.
3) A fall in the level of financial, food, clothing and other forms of provision to 85-90 % or below leads to a decline in the health of personnel, malnutrition, a deterioration of sanitary and living conditions, and a failure to supply uniforms to 70 % of service personnel.
4) A fall in the level of personnel's mastery of training and combat programmes to 60-70 % or below leads to a decline in combat proficiency.
5) A fall in the level of public confidence in the army to 30-40 % or below leads to a substantial loss in the spiritual component of its combat power and, consequently, to a decline in the effectiveness of its employment.
PRETEXT FOR WAR – the same as an occasion for war. Unlike an occasion, which is "natural" in character, a pretext is created artificially and deliberately prepared. An occasion always consists of real events, facts and circumstances, whereas a pretext may consist of fabrication or falsehood. A typical and widespread pretext for war is provocation.
USE OF FORCE – violent actions contrary to the principle prohibiting the use of force and the threat of force, which, in violation of the UN Charter, infringe the territorial integrity or political independence of a state, or which are carried out in any other manner incompatible with the purposes of the UN. The use of force means above all the employment of armed force by one state against another, irrespective of any declaration of war, i.e. aggression within the meaning of Article 1 of the 1974 Definition of Aggression. Many states proceed from the conception according to which the use of force includes not only actions of an armed character but also measures of economic, political and other coercion. The prohibited use of force is also understood to include actions by a state that consist in forcibly depriving a people of the right to self-determination (colonialism), as well as such forms of gross and mass violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms as genocide, racism and apartheid.
PRINCIPLES OF ENSURING THE SECURITY OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION – the fundamental, underlying tenets and guiding rules on the basis of which the policy of the Russian Federation for ensuring national security is conducted. The basic principles of ensuring security are: legality; maintaining a balance among the vital interests of the individual, society and the state; the mutual responsibility of the individual, society and the state for ensuring security; integration with international security systems.
CAUSES OF WAR – those factors, circumstances and processes which precede a war and necessarily give rise to it.
MILITARY PROVOCATION – the most dangerous variety of political provocation; in essence, military provocation consists of specially organised aggressive actions by the ruling circles of a state involving the (direct or indirect) use of military force in order to elicit a response and to exploit its consequences as a pretext for unleashing aggression, justifying an aggravation of the international situation, demonstrating the threat of armed violence, and testing the combat readiness of the enemy's troops (forces).
ARMED PROVOCATION – specially organised direct aggressive actions employing limited troop formations (irregular armed groups) in order to elicit a response and to exploit its consequences as a pretext for unleashing a war, interfering in the internal affairs of other sovereign states, testing the enemy's combat readiness, justifying an aggravation of the international situation, and demonstrating the threat of an escalation of armed violence. Armed provocation is usually prepared with great care in military as well as ideological and diplomatic terms. Particular attention is paid to the choice of the moment and place of action and to the methods of covering up the provocation.
MILITARY-POLITICAL FORECASTING – the scientifically grounded prediction of the development of the military-political situation and of conflict situations in the world and in a particular region; one of the decisive elements of the scientific organisation of political and military administration. Military-political forecasting makes it possible to determine a prospective course of development, to calculate precisely the expenditure of the necessary (power) resources for its implementation, to foresee the possible results of the military-political decisions taken, to identify emerging contradictions and to chart ways of minimising their negative consequences.
THE ORIGIN OF WAR – on the question of the origin of war, two principal points of view predominate in military-philosophical thought.
According to the first point of view, war is a historical and socio-political phenomenon that arose with the division of society into antagonistic classes and the emergence of politics and the state. Thus war is not inherent in human society from the outset, but is bound up only with a particular stage of social development.
The second point of view on the origin of war holds that war is inherent in humanity from the outset, arises with the emergence of human society, follows in large measure from the nature of man himself, and is generated by a combination of various factors (biological, psychological, demographic, geographical, ethnic, ecological). The basis of these views is an understanding of war as a natural confrontation between social forces (social groups) pursuing the achievement of particular aims by means of armed violence. War is understood as one of the natural, eternal conditions inherent in humanity from the moment of its appearance.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT ACTIONS IN WAR – different types of ways and methods of acting in war.
Indirect actions involve political, economic and moral-psychological influence upon the enemy, and methods of disinforming and subverting him from within. A special place in the system of indirect actions is occupied by special methods of waging war (psychological operations, subversive actions, special forces operations). Indirect actions have always played a major role, but in wars of the classical type they were subordinate to direct actions. Under contemporary conditions, with the winding down of global confrontation, the role of indirect actions is increasing considerably.
Direct actions presuppose the use of the means and methods of armed impact upon the enemy with the aim of defeating him and achieving the military-political and other aims of the war. Contact and non-contact actions are varieties of direct action.
RELIGION AND THE ARMY – the system of relations between the army and religious organisations is a specific part of state-church relations; its character is largely determined by changes in the political and religious spheres of the life of society.
RELIGION AND THE MILITARY POLICY OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION – the influence of the religious factor on the military policy of a state that is not in a state of war operates along two principal lines: 1) the study and consideration by the framers of military policy of the views of the country's main religious confessions concerning the steps being taken or contemplated in the field of the state's military policy; 2) the study and consideration of the influence of the religious factor on the development of the military-political situation in a region of the world bound up with the military-political interests of the state.
RELIGION AND WAR – religion's attitude towards the phenomenon of war is ambiguous and contradictory. Within religious ideology three principal approaches to the problem of war may be distinguished:
the religious-pacifist approach, associated with the unconditional condemnation of war and armed violence and with the preaching of the absolute value of human life;
the religious-militarist approach, associated with the open preaching of war as "God's will" and "God's punishment";
the criterial approach, associated with a selective attitude towards wars and armed conflicts and with attempts to work out definite criteria for dividing wars into "just" ones (which should be supported) and "unjust" ones (which should be condemned).
RELIGION AND ENSURING THE MILITARY SECURITY OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION – the religious factor influences the accomplishment of the tasks of ensuring military security along the following lines: 1) the impact of religious confessions on the formation of social and individual consciousness, of public opinion and of individuals' personal positions on questions of peace, war and the army; 2) influence on the elaboration of the doctrinal foundations for ensuring military security and on the adoption of specific decisions in the military-political sphere; 3) the influence of religious precepts and of the activity of religious associations on the process of military development in Russia (including the system of manning and the system of educating personnel); 4) the joining of the efforts of confessional and state structures in order to raise the effectiveness of the policy of ensuring the military security of the Russian Federation.
MILITARY REFORM – a substantial transformation of the military organisation of the state and of the entire military sphere of the life of society. Military reform is carried out by decision of the supreme organs of state power. Its necessity arises from the existence of a contradiction between the real requirements of ensuring the country's military security and the capabilities of the military organisation to meet them. The aim of military reform is to bring the military organisation of the state into a qualitatively new condition corresponding to the realities of its domestic and international position. The content of a military reform is given legal expression in laws, plans and programmes of military development, in military regulations and in other documents.
In Russia the most significant military reforms were those of Ivan IV (the Terrible) – 1550-1571; Peter I (the Great) – 1698-1724; Minister of War D. A. Milyutin – the 1860s-1870s; the military reform after the Russo-Japanese War – 1905-1912; and the military reform associated with the name of M. V. Frunze – 1924-1926. The transformations of the military organisation carried out in the USSR in 1935-1939, associated with the transition from the mixed to the cadre principle of manning the Armed Forces and with their technical re-equipment, also bore the features of a military reform; as did those of 1946-1949, associated with the demobilisation of the Armed Forces and the transfer of the national economy from a peacetime to a wartime footing; those of 1954-1961, associated with the military-technical revolution and the large-scale equipping of the services and branches of the armed forces with nuclear missile weapons; and those of 1967-1972, associated with the implementation of the provisions of the new USSR Law on Universal Military Service. The military reform of 1987-1991 remained unfinished owing to the collapse of the USSR.
REFORM OF THE ARMED FORCES – one of the most important directions of military reform, associated with carrying out qualitative transformations of the army as the core of the military organisation of society and the state.
THE ROLE OF WAR IN HISTORY – is determined by the impact of war on all aspects of social life. War brings about shifts in the economy, in politics, in the social sphere and in people's spiritual life, and influences ecological and demographic processes.
CONCEPTIONS OF HOLY WAR – militant slogans of struggle for the faith exist in the ideological and political arsenal of virtually every developed religion. These slogans are embodied in various versions of conceptions of holy war, which sanction a religious war as "holy".
Thus as early as the 5th century Augustine, the Christian theologian and philosopher, provided a rationale for the notion of a "holy war" in defence of the church and the faith. Developing Augustine's propositions, the Catholic philosopher Thomas Aquinas (13th century) characterised peace as one of the most important virtues. But war cannot be excluded from the life of society, Thomas held: wars in defence of the faith are declared just and, consequently, entirely permissible.
An analogous situation obtains in Islam. This religion has the concept of "jihad" ("effort", "struggle for the faith"). This term is sometimes mistakenly translated into Russian as "holy war for the faith". However, "jihad" is a far broader phenomenon; Muslim theologians distinguish: the "jihad of the heart" ("the struggle against one's own evil inclinations"), the "jihad of the tongue" ("enjoining what is approved and forbidding what is reprehensible"), the "jihad of the hand" ("taking disciplinary measures against criminals and violators of moral norms") and, finally, the "jihad of the sword" ("armed struggle against the infidels, in which he who falls is destined for eternal bliss in paradise"). From the standpoint of the object of the armed struggle, six types of "jihad of the sword" are distinguished: 1) against the "enemies of Allah" (i.e. those who threaten the existence of the ummah (the Islamic community) and those who persecute Muslims); 2) against those who encroach upon the inviolability of the borders (i.e. against aggression from without); 3) against apostates; 4) against the "oppressor"; 5) against brigands; 6) against non-Muslim monotheists who refuse to pay the jizya – the tax levied on those of other faiths.
FORCEFUL PRESSURE – the totality of actions relying on military force which a state undertakes (unilaterally or on a coalition basis) to achieve its aims and which are directed at compelling the opposing side to make concessions through the threat of the use of military force and the demonstration of military might, when the aims pursued do not require the large-scale combat employment of the armed forces or when such employment is impossible or undesirable.
NATIONAL SECURITY PROVISION SYSTEM — the basis of the national security provision system of the Russian Federation consists of the bodies, forces and assets for ensuring national security, which implement measures of a political, legal, organisational, economic, military and other nature aimed at ensuring the security of the individual, society and the state. The n. s. p. s. of the Russian Federation is created and developed in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal laws, decrees and directives of the President of the Russian Federation, resolutions and directives of the Government of the Russian Federation, and federal programmes in this field. The powers of the bodies and forces for ensuring the national security of the Russian Federation, their composition, and the principles and procedures of their operation are determined by the relevant legislative acts of the Russian Federation.
THE COMPONENTS OF NATIONAL SECURITY — these are the elements of the content of national security regarded as a complex system; besides the term "components of national security", military-political sources also use the terms "spheres of security" and "forms of security". The principal c. of n. s. usually identified are: economic security, social security, political security, spiritual security and military security. In addition, researchers also examine environmental, information, psychological, scientific-technical and certain other forms of security.
THE CONTENT OF WAR — everything contained within the system "war" (substrate elements, relations, connections, processes, development trends, all parts of the system).
THE CONTENT OF ARMED STRUGGLE — comprises four interrelated elements: 1) the destruction of the enemy's troops and installations; 2) the defence and protection of one's own troops and installations against destruction; 3) the comprehensive support of the troops; 4) the command and control of forces and assets in armed struggle.
PERMANENT-READINESS FORMATIONS AND UNITS — the category of permanent readiness comprises formations and units capable of carrying out combat missions in peacetime and wartime without measures to bring them up to strength with mobilisation resources.
STRATEGIC STABILITY — a stable state of relations between political actors in which they do not create mutual threats to one another, derive mutual benefit, and are interested in preserving and further strengthening those relations; S. s. is characterised above all by the crisis-free development of interstate relations and a stable equilibrium of forces in all spheres of interaction.
THE STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP OF RUSSIA AND THE USA — Russia counts on expanding cooperation with the USA in the political and economic spheres, as well as on continuing cooperation with the USA in the sphere of ensuring strategic stability and dismantling the legacy of the Cold War, and on constructive interaction with the USA in ensuring regional stability and the non-proliferation of WMD at the regional level. Russia supports efforts to combat international terrorism within the framework of the anti-terrorist coalition, which is an element of global stability and a means of establishing a more just new world order. In its relations with the USA, Russia is guided by the need for strict observance of the norms of international law and by the primacy of its own national interests. Russia proceeds from the assumption that, despite certain differences in approaches to resolving regional problems, consensus must be found on the basis of respect for the norms of international law and mutual respect for national interests.
SUBJECTS OF SECURITY — the following may act as subjects of security: any person, any state or non-state organisation, any public association that is concerned about its own existence or about the security of other individuals and social structures. In social formations with a hierarchical structure, the higher institution (body) is responsible for the security of its subordinate links. The most important subjects of security provision traditionally include: the state; international governmental and non-governmental organisations; various kinds of public associations; political and public leaders, and others. The principal subject of security in modern political systems is the state, which performs its functions in this field through the organs of the legislative, executive and judicial branches.
THE ESSENCE OF WAR — in essence, war is regarded as the continuation of politics by other, namely armed, means. The methodological basis of such an interpretation of the e. of w. is the so-called "Clausewitz formula".
The two principal elements in the structure of the e. of w. are: 1) politics as the fundamental element of the essence of war; 2) armed struggle as the specific element of the essence of war.
Both sides of the essence of war are in dialectical interaction, and a change in one of them, as a rule, entails a change in the other, which is reflected in the laws of war.
TERRORISM — a complex phenomenon encompassing a range of problems of a political, economic, legal, military, ethnic, religious, psychological and other character in the life of society. Despite the widespread use of the term "terrorism", the world community faces great difficulties on the question of an adequate definition of this concept.
In general terms, T. may be defined as a socially dangerous, unlawful movement, criminal in its moral and legal essence, in the sphere of economic, power-related, social and spiritual politics, whose participants employ cruel methods and diverse means of armed violence with the aim of intimidating or directly destroying the objects of their influence.
From the standpoint of jurisprudence, T. is regarded as a body of unlawful, criminal acts directed against public safety. In this sense T. is defined fairly precisely; definitions of T. exist in international law as well as in the domestic legislation of many countries, including Russia.
In politics, T. (identifying it with terror) refers to the strategy and tactics of certain forces oriented towards violent methods of suppressing their opponents. Some researchers contrast terror and terrorism. Terror, in this case, is regarded as a policy of repression on the part of a state relying on the might of its security agencies, while terrorism is violence carried out by opposition groupings.
As a social phenomenon, T. represents the ideology, politics and social practice of social forces (individuals, groups and institutions) oriented towards illegal, violent forms of changing the state and social order.
INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM — regarded as one of the challenges stimulated by the processes of globalisation. I. t. as a socio-political phenomenon posing a threat to international peace and security from which it is impossible to take shelter within "national quarters" is a harsh reality of our day. It is impossible to combat I. t. effectively within the framework of individual states; in this connection the importance of international cooperation among security agencies, including the special services and the armed forces, rises sharply.
It appears erroneous to view I. t. simplistically as an organisation with a single centre of leadership that has entangled the whole world in its tentacles and all of whose links act in a coordinated manner according to a common plan. In the modern world there is no such single and unique phenomenon as "international terrorism"; rather there is a multitude of different phenomena, often entirely unconnected with one another, whose common feature is the extensive use of violence and a transborder character. Not infrequently terrorists are organised, and interact at the international level, better than the corresponding organs of the states called upon to oppose them.
THREATENED PERIOD — a stretch of time (of varying duration) that usually precedes the outbreak of a war. It is characterised by an extreme aggravation of the international situation and of the contradictions between probable adversaries. The t. p. is used to raise the combat readiness of the armed forces, for their strategic deployment and for shifting the economy onto a war footing. Given modern means of warfare and large groupings of troops and forces deployed in advance in the theatre of military operations (TMO), there may be no t. p. at all.
THREAT TO THE PEACE — a situation which in each specific case is determined at the discretion of the UN Security Council and which serves as grounds for that body to adopt recommendations or decisions on what measures should be taken in accordance with Chapter VII of the UN Charter to maintain international peace and security.
MILITARY THREATS — a specific part of the general spectrum of threats to national security, associated with the direct or indirect use (employing various forms and methods of action, including non-traditional, indirect and non-contact ones) of military force.
THREATS TO NATIONAL SECURITY — the totality of conditions and factors impeding the realisation of national (primarily vital, basic) interests. Real and potential t. to n. s. are distinguished. The real and potential threats to the objects of security emanating from internal and external sources of danger determine the content of activity to ensure national security.
LEVELS OF SECURITY — under modern conditions a conception has taken shape of three levels at which the problem of security is addressed: the first is the intra-state level (which presupposes solving security problems within the framework of a particular state); the second is the regional level (associated with examining security threats and developing appropriate protective measures within a regional framework); the third is the global level (which presupposes analysing the relevant sources of danger and developing adequate measures in the context of global dynamics).
CONDITIONS FOR THE REALISATION OF NATIONAL INTERESTS — these are associated with the interaction of two groups of factors: threat factors, which impede the realisation of vital interests, and factors favouring the realisation of the vital interests of the individual, society and the state. It is as a result of the struggle between these factors that the real and potential threats to national security are determined.
THE UNCERTAINTY FACTOR — a special category of military planning. The u. f. is understood as a situation, conflict or process of a political or military-political nature whose development may substantially alter the geopolitical situation in a region of priority importance for Russia's interests or create a direct threat to the security of the Russian Federation. The very nature of uncertainty factors precludes the possibility of formulating an unambiguous forecast of their development. The most significant uncertainty factors identified in Russian military planning are: 1) the development of the internal situation in the world's key countries; 2) the development of the situation in the CIS countries; 3) the situation in the regions bordering the CIS.
THREAT FACTORS (THREATENING FACTORS) — factors that are sources of threats impeding the realisation of the vital (basic) interests of the individual, society and the state. The principal t. f. are:
Risk — a high probability of the emergence of situations capable of hindering the achievement of security aims in various spheres;
Challenge — actual opposition to the realisation of national interests, not, as a rule, presupposing the use of military force;
Danger — the presence of an objective possibility of inflicting damage on national interests, including by means of military force;
Threat — a subjective intention and an objective possibility of inflicting damage on national interests, including by means of military force.
The movement from risks to threats (through challenges and dangers) has been termed in political science the "escalation ladder".
THE CLAUSEWITZ FORMULA — the idea, formulated by the German military theorist C. Clausewitz (1780-1831), of the indissoluble connection between war and politics, according to which "war is not merely a political act, but a real instrument of policy, a continuation of political relations, a carrying out of the same by other means". The materialist interpretation of the "Clausewitz formula" has the following features:
it emphasises the class character of politics, in contrast to Clausewitz's characterisation of it as a supra-class phenomenon;
war is regarded as a continuation not only of foreign but also of domestic policy;
the dialectic of domestic and foreign policy is revealed: their indissoluble unity and the determining role of domestic policy in relation to foreign policy are demonstrated
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE ARMY — these are the principal modes of action of the army within society. In the course of realising its social role, the army performs traditional functions (also called principal, essential or attributive) and non-traditional ones (by analogy called non-principal, non-essential or non-attributive).
The traditional functions of the army usually include the external and internal functions. The external function of the army is associated, as a rule, with the armed defence of the state's interests in the international arena, in the sphere of interstate relations. The internal function of the army presupposes its use within the country for the purpose of preventing and suppressing possible internal armed conflicts and attempts at forcibly changing the existing social and state order. In most developed countries today the prevailing aspiration is to strengthen the status of the army as a national institution whose tasks are connected with the use of weapons exclusively against an external adversary. And if the need arises to use armed violence against any individuals or social groups within the country, special state structures exist for this (the militia, the police, the national guard, etc.). However, this does not exclude the use of the army within the country during periods of sharp complication of the domestic political situation and destabilisation of society; in a number of countries (the USA, the FRG, Russia and others) an appropriate legal and regulatory framework has been created for this.
The non-traditional functions of the army are usually associated with the accomplishment of the following tasks: 1) mitigating the consequences of natural disasters; 2) assisting in environmental protection; 3) participating in ensuring law and order; 4) rendering assistance to local authorities. The conduct of peacekeeping operations is also, as a rule, classed as non-traditional. The non-traditional use of the army may take place both within the country and beyond its borders.
Taken together, the f. of the a. form a complex system. It is precisely through the army's performance of its functions that its historical purpose is realised.
THE CHARACTER OF WAR — the totality of the most essential features of a war that characterise it as a concrete historical phenomenon. A distinction is usually drawn between the socio-political and the strategic (military-technical) c. of w.
The properties and features characterising the socio-political c. of w. usually include: the political actors appearing in the war as opposing sides, the particular features of their policies, and their political aims in the war; the politico-economic and various other causes of the war and the character of the military threats preceding it; the attitude of the people and the army towards the war. The strategic c. of w. determines above all the strategic aims and tasks of the parties; the conditions and methods of unleashing the war; the types of weapons employed; the scale, scope and particular features of military operations; and the methods, forms and duration of their conduct.
The Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation identifies the following principal general features of modern war:
an impact on all spheres of human activity;
a coalition character;
the extensive use of indirect, non-contact and other (including non-traditional) forms and methods of action, and of long-range fire and electronic destruction;
active information confrontation, the disorientation of public opinion in individual states and of the world community as a whole;
the parties' aspiration to disorganise the system of state and military command and control;
the use of the latest highly effective weapons systems and military equipment (including systems based on new physical principles);
manoeuvre operations by troops (forces) along dispersed axes with the extensive employment of airmobile forces, airborne landings and special-purpose troops;
the destruction of troops (forces), rear-area installations, the economy and lines of communication throughout the entire territory of each of the opposing sides;
the conduct of air campaigns and operations;
the catastrophic consequences of the destruction (demolition) of power-generating enterprises (above all nuclear ones), chemical and other hazardous production facilities, infrastructure, lines of communication and life-support installations;
a high probability of new states being drawn into the war, of the escalation of armed struggle, and of the widening of the scale and range of the means employed, including weapons of mass destruction;
the participation in the war of irregular armed formations alongside regular ones.
COLD WAR — one of the means of politics, qualitatively different from classical wars. In general terms, the C. w. represents a systemic antagonistic conflict unfolding mainly within the framework of peaceful (although highly unstable and precarious) relations. The C. w. is the continuation of politics by violent means without armed struggle. The decisive means in it are non-military violent means, the use of which does not terminate peaceful relations between rival states (coalitions) but aggravates them in the extreme. These means are associated with various forms of violence: economic (economic sanctions, blockades, financial and trade isolation, etc.); diplomatic (secret collusion to inflict damage, interference in internal affairs, the flouting of agreements and treaties, political disinformation, etc.); spiritual (propaganda subversion, lies, slander, deception, the instilling of fear and uncertainty); intelligence-related, and so on). One of the principal methods of employing these means is covert operations. The "cold" war stands in a complex relationship to the "hot" one: it may precede it, replace it, or perform its functions; the boundaries between them are highly fluid. The C. w., like all other social phenomena, changes and develops.
EXTREMISM — adherence to extreme measures and views. E. in politics denotes the aspiration to solve problems and achieve stated aims using the most radical methods, including all forms of social violence and terror. In ideological terms, E. rejects all dissent, seeking rigidly to assert its own system of political, ideological or religious views and to impose them on its opponents at any cost; it demands blind obedience from its supporters. The modern era is characterised by a diversity of varieties and manifestations of E.: "left-wing" and "right-wing" E., religious E., etc.).
NUCLEAR DETERRENCE — a set of coordinated and interrelated measures of a political-diplomatic, economic and properly military nature, implemented by the political leadership of a state and relying on nuclear weapons in the interests of deterring emerging military conflicts and their escalation.
Часть 1 Military-political terms
Часть 2 - Military-political terms
Comments