4.4. Physiological basis of the human psyche * - 4.

Это продолжение увлекательной статьи про сознание человека.

...

the first year of life, the child learns new actions, which is associated with a change in his attitude to the world around him. In the seventh month of life, the child has already well developed manual subject movements. He can take an object, bring it to his mouth, push him away. In this case, the child can independently sit down, roll over from the abdomen to the back; he begins to crawl, rises, trying to cling to surrounding objects. Thus, the strengthening of the musculoskeletal system leads to the development of the range of movements of the child, which in turn is a prerequisite to an increase in the flow of information from the environment. All this leads to an increase in the independence of the child. His relationship with adults is increasingly acquiring a form of joint activity in which an adult most often prepares the child’s action, and the child performs the action itself. With this interaction, it is already possible to establish communication with the child through objects. For example, an adult moves an object to a child - the child takes it. The child pushes the object away from him - an adult removes it.

Consequently, the activity of the child in this period of development is no longer governed by the perception of individual objects or their combination, but by the complex ratio of the child’s own objective action and that of an adult. On this basis, the child begins to emerge the first understanding of objects. In the course of the established “subject” contact, the child begins to form speech. He is increasingly beginning to respond to the word adult. Somewhat later, the child appears gestures that are addressed to an adult, while the child’s actions are increasingly accompanied by sounds that signify something objective.

Another important difference of this age is that in a child in the process of substantive communication with an adult, a non-impulsive presentation becomes possible.

razhanie adults. As a result, the child begins to imitate the adult more consciously, which indicates that the child has the possibility of mastering socially developed methods of action. This in turn ensures the emergence at the end of this stage of specifically human motor operations with objects. During these operations, the thumb is opposed to the rest, which is characteristic only for a person. Gradually, the child begins an increasingly perfect way to grab and hold objects with his hand. By the end of the period, the child also takes possession of independent walking.

Thus, the main characteristics of this period are: a change in relations with the outside world on the basis of substantive communication; understanding of subjects and the appearance of the first signs of speech; the emergence of non-impulsive imitation of adults and the development of specifically human motor operations with objects; mastering self walking.

The preschool age (from 1 year to 3 years) is characterized by the emergence and initial development of a specifically human, social in nature, activity of the child and a human-specific form of conscious reflection of reality. The essence of the main changes in the psyche of a child during this period lies in the fact that the child masters the human attitude towards the world of objects directly surrounding him. Moreover, the cognition of the properties of objects is carried out by the child through imitation of the actions of adults with them, that is, cognition of objects occurs simultaneously with the comprehension of their functions. Mastering the functions of objects in a child occurs in two ways. On the one hand, this is the development of the simplest skills, such as possession of a spoon, a cup, etc. Another form of mastering objects is manipulating them in the process of the game.

The appearance of the game marks a new stage in the development of the psyche of the child. He already knows the world not only through interaction with an adult, but also independently.

On this basis, the child masters the words, which are also understood by him primarily as denoting the object with its functions. At the same time, in the course of the game, speech becomes more and more involved in activities, and more and more often begins to fulfill the function of not only identifying objects, but also means of communication. However, a distinctive feature of a child’s games at this age in comparison with the next stage — the stage of preschool age — is the absence of an imaginary situation in the game. A child, by manipulating objects, simply imitates the actions of adults, not filling them with content, but in the course of the game, the child intensively develops perception, ability to analyze and generalize, that is, there is an intensive formation of mental functions. By the end of this stage, the child’s activity is already caused not only by a direct encounter with the object, but also by the intentions of the child himself. At this time, the child seeks to perform an increasing circle of known actions. The frequent appearance of the phrase “I myself” marks the beginning of a new stage in the development of the child’s psyche.

Consequently, the main features of the child’s mental development at this stage consist in mastering the inherent attitude of the person to the surrounding objects, in imitating the behavior of adults and in shaping the basic functions of thinking.

Preschool age (from 3 to 7 years). The main difference of this age is the presence of a contradiction between the child’s striving for the actual mastery of the world of objects and the limitations of its capabilities. At this age, the child tends to do not what he can, but what he sees or hears. However, many actions are not yet available to him. This contradiction is resolved in the story game. Unlike the previous age period and the game-manipulation, the plot game is filled with content reflecting the real content of the copied action. If earlier a child only approached the mastering of specific human relations to an object, now objects for him appear as characterizing human relations and various functions of people. To master a subject for a child means to assume a certain social role - the role of a person operating with a given object. Therefore, plot games contribute to the mastery of the social relationships of the human world. It is no coincidence that plot games are often called role-playing games. Sources of games are the impressions of the child, all that he sees or hears.

In the process of role-playing game, the formation of a creative imagination and the ability to arbitrarily control one's behavior take place. Role-playing games also contribute to the development of perception, memorization, reproduction and speech.

Another important feature of this stage is the process of formation of the child's personality. During this process, traits of the child’s character are laid. During this period, the child is fairly free to master the basic norms and rules of behavior. This is facilitated not only by plot games, but also by reading fairy tales, drawing, designing, etc. According to A.N. Leontiev, at the end of this stage of development of the psyche, the child seeks to master socially significant activities. Thus, he begins to enter into a new stage of his development, characterized by the performance of certain duties.

The younger school age (from 7 to 12 years). Admission to the school characterizes a new stage in the development of the child’s psyche. Now his system of relations with the outside world is determined not only by relationships with adults, but by relationships with peers. In addition, he now has responsibilities to society. From the fulfillment of these duties depends on his future, his place in society.

It should be noted that at the previous stages of its development the child learned, but only now study appears before him as an independent activity. In school years, learning begins to occupy a central place in the child's life. All the major changes in mental development observed at this stage are associated primarily with studies.

The main pattern of mental development at this stage is the mental development of the child. The school makes serious demands on the attention of the child, in connection with which there is a rapid development of voluntary (controlled) attention, voluntary targeted observation. Not less serious requirements of schooling to the memory of the child. The child now must not just memorize, he must memorize correctly, being active in learning the educational material. In this regard, the productive

The capacity of the child’s memory greatly increases, although in the first time of learning the memory preserves primarily a figurative, concrete character. Therefore, children literally memorize even textual material that is not required to learn by heart.

The thinking of children develops especially intensively in the elementary school age. If at the age of seven or eight years old, the child’s thinking is concrete, based on visual images and representations, then in the process of learning his thinking acquires new features. It becomes more connected, consistent and logical. However, a child at this age is experiencing a rapid development of speech, which is largely due to the mastery of written speech. He not only develops a more correct understanding of the words, but he learns to correctly use grammatical categories.

In the process of learning a child develops a personality. First of all, his interests change. Children's interests, thanks to the development of cognitive processes, are replaced by learning interests. Children show increased interest in obtaining new material, especially in primary grades. They listen with great interest to stories about animals, about travel, etc.

The collective plays an extremely important role in shaping the personality of the child. Having started to study at school, the child first encounters a situation where his peers around him are united by a specific goal and they are assigned certain responsibilities. He first encounters the concepts of "collective" and "collective responsibility." All the people who surrounded him earlier, including children in kindergarten, were not a team. The main socially significant unit for the child was the family.

Another feature of this period is that at its final stage the division of activity into “male” and “female” takes place. Boys are more interested in male activities, and girls - in women.

Thus, the younger school age is characterized by rapid development of all cognitive mental processes, the continuing formation of the personality, the acquisition of the first experience of adaptation in the team.

Adolescence and the onset of adolescence (from 13–14 to 17–18 years) are characterized by continuing education. At the same time, the child is increasingly involved in the life of society. At this time, the child’s orientation towards “male” and “female” activities is completed, depending on gender. Moreover, striving for self-realization, the child begins to show success in a particular type of activity, to express thoughts about the future profession.

At the same time, the further development of cognitive mental processes and the formation of personality take place. In the process of personality formation, a change in the interests of the child occurs. They become more differentiated and persistent. Learning interests are no longer paramount. The child begins to focus on the "adult" life.

It should also be noted that the process of puberty affects the formation of personality during this period. A young person has a rapid development of the organism, the activity of individual organs (for example, the heart) undergoes certain changes. Sexual identification of the teenager comes to the end.

Under the influence of the whole complex of factors, a change in the psychological appearance of the child occurs. In the behavior of boys, men's traits are becoming increasingly noticeable, while girls' behavioral stereotypes are increasingly manifest in girls.

It should be noted that the development of the psyche does not end in the period of adolescence. Certain dynamics of mental development is noted at a later time. Therefore, in contemporary psychology, it is customary to distinguish two more periods: the acmeological period of development, or the period of adulthood, and the period of gerontogenesis.

Акмеологический период развития охватывает возраст от 18 до 60 лет. Впервые термин «акмеология» был предложен II. И. Рыбниковым в 1928 г . Данным термином (акме — высшая точка, расцвет, зрелость, лучшая нора) принято обозначать период зрелости как самого продуктивного, творческого периода жизни человека. В отличие от юношеского периода акмеологический период характеризуется тем, что в нем завершается общесоматическое развитие и половое созревание человека, который достигает своего оптимума физического развития. Этот период характеризуется также наиболее высоким уровнем интеллектуальных, творческих, профессиональных достижений,

Вероятно, наиболее полную характеристику данного периода дал Б. Г. Ананьев, который в онтогенетическом развитии человека выделил две особые фазы. Первая фаза охватывает юность, молодость и начало среднего возраста. Она характеризуется общим фронтальным прогрессом функций. В частности, объем и показатели переключаемости внимания нарастают к 33 годам, а затем начинают понижаться. Наиболее высокие показатели кратковременной вербальной памяти отмечаются в возрасте 18-30 лет, а после 33 начинают снижаться. Аналогичные изменения происходят и с интеллектом. Так, Фульдс и Равен считают, что если уровень развития логической способности 20-летних принять за 100 %, то в 30 лет он будет составлять 96 %, в 40 - 87 %, в 50 лет - 80 %, а в 60 - 75 %.

Вторая фаза данного периода, по мнению Б. Г. Ананьева, характеризуется специализацией психических функций применительно к определенной деятельности. На этой фазе в качестве главных выступают операционные механизмы, а продолжительность этой фазы определяется степенью активности человека как субъекта и личности. В этом возрасте продолжают развиваться актуальные для человека функции, под которыми следует понимать те психические функции, которые являются наиболее значимыми для основного вида деятельности конкретного человека. У одних людей это глазомер, точность, движений, у других — мышление, память, внимание. Достижение высокого уровня развития актуальных психических функций в зрелые годы возможно потому, что они находятся в условиях оптимальной нагрузки, усиленной мотивации, операционных преобразований.

Период геронтогенеза — это поздний период человеческой жизни. В нем принято выделять три фазы: пожилой возраст (для мужчин — 60-74 года, для женщин — 55-74 года); старческий возраст — 75-90 лет; долгожители — 90 лет и старше.

В целом данный период характеризуется угасанием физических и психических функций. Отмечается снижение интенсивности углеводного, жирового и белкового обмена. Уменьшается способность клеток осуществлять окислительно-восстановительные процессы. Снижается общая активность организма. В то же время отмечается снижение возможностей психических функций, особенно памяти, внимания, мышления.

Однако следует отметить, что протекание данного периода в значительной степени определяется индивидуальными особенностями человека. На позднем этапе

ontogeny, the role of the personality, its social status, its involvement in the system of social relations is especially great for the preservation of human working ability. Of particular importance for the confrontation of human involution is his work. Today we know many examples of outstanding scholars and artists who have retained labor and creative activity for a very long time. So, I.P. Pavlov created the “Twenty Years Experience” at 73 years, and the “Lectures on the work of the large hemispheres of the brain” at 77 years. Leo Tolstoy wrote “Resurrection” at 71, and “Hadji Murad” at 76 years. Michelangelo, O. Renoir, Voltaire, B. Shaw, I. V. Goethe and others were distinguished for their high creative activity and productivity in the later years of their lives. Thus, any human age is beautiful in its own way.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the above classification and characterization of the stages of development of the child’s psyche is not unique. The considered characteristics of the stages of mental development in childhood are based on the opinion and research of A. I. Leontiev. When studying other psychological disciplines, such as pedagogical psychology, it is possible to meet with a different classification of the main stages in the development of the child’s psyche, but their content and patterns of dynamics will mostly correspond to the characteristics outlined above. Thus, we can draw a number of conclusions.

First, the emergence of consciousness in man has both biological and cultural-social conditionality. As a result of the evolution of nature, the nervous system and first of all the brain have reached a level of development that allows a person to engage in labor. Under the influence of labor that is collective in nature, man began to develop mental processes that led to the emergence of consciousness - the highest level of mental development inherent only in man.

Secondly, the development of the psyche of the child in many respects repeats the patterns of the socio-historical development of man. The above description of the developmental stages of the child’s psyche is an illustration of how in the development process, thanks to various forms of activity, including the manipulation of objects in the early stages of development and children's games, the formation of the consciousness of the future member of human society takes place.

Thirdly, the cited material indicates that the emergence of consciousness outside of society is impossible. The main conditions for the emergence and development of consciousness are the appropriate level of biological organization, the presence of a social environment and collective work.

4.4. Physiological basis of the human psyche *

Structure, functioning and properties of the central nervous system.

The problem of the emergence of consciousness is viewed from different perspectives. From one point of view, human consciousness is of divine origin. With another

* To illustrate the materials in this section, we used drawings from the book: Bloom F., Leiserson A.,

Hifstedter L. Brain, mind, behavior: Trans. from English - M .: Mir, 1988.

From the point of view, the emergence of consciousness in humans is considered as a natural stage in the evolution of the animal world. After reviewing the material of the previous sections, we can say with certainty the following:

• all living things can be classified according to the level of development of the psyche;

• The level of mental development of an animal is closely related to the level of development of its nervous system;

• the person, possessing consciousness, possesses the highest level of mental development.

Having made such conclusions, we will not be mistaken if we say that a person possesses not only the highest level of mental development, but also a more developed nervous system.

In this section we will get acquainted with the structure and features of the functioning of the human nervous system. Immediately make a reservation that our acquaintance will not have the character of in-depth study, since the functional structure of the nervous system is studied in more detail within other disciplines, in particular, the anatomy of the nervous system, physiology of higher nervous activity, and psychophysiology.

The human nervous system consists of two sections: central and peripheral. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain consists, in turn, of the anterior, middle and hindbrain. In these main sections of the central nervous system, the most important structures that are directly related to the functioning of the human psyche are also distinguished: the thalamus, hypothalamus, bridge, cerebellum, medulla (Fig. 4.3).

Fig. 4.3. The main parts of the human central nervous system

Virtually all departments and structures of the central and peripheral nervous systems are involved in obtaining and processing information, but the cerebral cortex, which, together with the subcortical structures in the forebrain, determines the functioning of human consciousness and thinking, is of particular importance for the human psyche.

The central nervous system is associated with all organs and tissues of the human body. This connection is provided by the nerves that leave the brain and spinal cord. In humans, all the nerves are divided into two functional groups. The first group includes nerves that carry signals from the outside world and the structures of the body. The nerves in this group are called afferent. The nerves that carry signals from the central nervous system to the periphery (organs, muscle tissue, etc.) belong to another group and are called efferent.

The central nervous system itself is a cluster of nerve cells - neurons (Fig. 4.4). These nerve cells are made up of a neuron and a tree-like process called debris. One of these processes is elongated and connects the neuron with the bodies or processes of other neurons. Such a process is called axon.

Fig. 4.4. The general structure of the neuron

Part of the axons is covered with a special membrane - the myelin sheath, which provides a faster conduction of the impulse along the nerve. The junctions of one neuron with another are called synapses.

Most neurons are specific, that is, they perform certain functions. For example, neurons that provide impulses from the periphery to the central nervous system are called “sensory neurons”. In turn, the neurons responsible for transmitting impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles are called “motor neurons”. Neurons responsible for providing communication between some parts of the central nervous system and others are called “neurons of the local network”.

On the periphery, axons are connected with miniature organic devices designed to perceive various types of anergy (mechanical, electromagnetic, chemical, etc.) and to convert se into nerve impulse energy. These organic devices are called receptors. They are located throughout the human body. Especially a lot of receptors in the senses, specifically designed for the perception of information about the world.

Investigating the problem of perception, storage and processing of information, I. P. Pavlov introduced the concept of an analyzer. This concept refers to a relatively autonomous organic structure that provides processing of specific sensory information and its passage.

at all levels, including the central nervous system. Consequently, each analyzer consists of three structural elements: receptors, nerve fibers and the corresponding sections of the central nervous system (Fig. 4.5).

As we have said, there are several groups of receptors. This subdivision of the pa group is recognized by the ability of receptors to perceive and process only one type of action, so the receptors are divided into visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, skin, etc. The information obtained using the receptors is transmitted further to the appropriate department of the central nervous system, including the cerebral cortex. It should be noted that information from the same receptor enters only a specific area of ​​the cerebral cortex. The visual analyzer closes on one area of ​​the cortex, the auditory - on the other, and so on.

It should be emphasized that the entire cerebral cortex can be divided into separate functional areas. At the same time, it is possible to single out not only the zones of analyzers, but also motor, speech, etc. Thus, in accordance with the classification of C. Brodmann, the cerebral cortex can be divided into 11 regions and 52 fields.

Let us consider in more detail the structure of the cerebral cortex (Fig. 4.6, Fig. 4.7, Fig. 4.8). It represents the upper layer of the forebrain, formed mainly by vertically oriented neurons, their processes - dendrites and axon bundles going down to the corresponding parts of the brain, as well as axons transmitting information from the underlying brain structures. The cerebral cortex is divided into areas: temporal, frontal, parietal, occipital, and the areas themselves are divided into even smaller areas - the field. It should be noted that since the left and right hemispheres are distinguished in the brain,

then the areas of the cerebral cortex, respectively, will be divided into left and right.

According to the time of the appearance of the cerebral cortex in the process of human phylogenesis, the cerebral cortex is subdivided into ancient, old and new. The ancient cortex has only one layer of cells that are not completely separated from the subcortical structures. The area of ​​the ancient cortex is about 0.6% of the area of ​​the entire cortex.

The old cortex also consists of a single layer of cells, but it is completely separated from the subcortical structures. Its area is about 2.6% of the area of ​​the entire bark. Most of the bark is occupied by the new bark. It has the most complex, multi-layered and developed structure.

The information obtained by the receptors is transmitted through the nerve fibers to the accumulation of specific nuclei of the thalamus, and through them the afferent impulse enters the primary projection zones of the cerebral cortex. These zones are the final cortical structures of the analyzer. For example, the projective zone of the visual analyzer is located in the occipital regions of the large hemispheres, and the projective zone of the auditory analyzers is located in the upper portions of the temporal lobes.

The primary projective zones of the analyzers are sometimes called sensory zones, because they are associated with the formation of a certain type of sensations. If you destroy any zone, a person may lose the ability to perceive a certain type of information. For example, if you destroy the area of ​​visual sensations, then the person becomes blind. Thus, the sensations of a person depend not only

1 10 • Part I. Introduction to general psychology

on the level of development and integrity of the sense organ, in this case, of vision, but also on the integrity of the pathways — nerve fibers — and the primary projective zone of the cerebral cortex.

It should be noted that in addition to the primary fields of the analyzers (sensory fields), there are other primary fields, for example, primary motor fields associated with the muscles of the body and responsible for certain movements (Fig. 4.9). It is also necessary to pay attention to the fact that the primary fields occupy a relatively small area of ​​the cerebral cortex - no more than one third of the area. A much larger area is occupied by secondary fields, which are often called associative, or integrative.

The secondary fields of the cortex are like a "superstructure" over the primary fields. Their functions are to synthesize or integrate individual elements of information into a coherent picture. Thus, elementary sensations in sensory integrative fields (or perceptual fields) add up to a holistic perception, and individual movements, due to motor integrative fields, are formed into a holistic movement act.

Fig. 4.9. Scheme of the primary motor fields of the cerebral cortex

Chapter 4. The origin and development of human consciousness • 111

Secondary fields play an extremely important role in ensuring the functioning of both the human psyche and the organism itself. If these fields are influenced by electric current, for example, the secondary fields of the visual analyzer, then holistic visual images can be triggered by a person, and their destruction leads to the disintegration of the visual perception of objects, although some sensations remain.

Among the integrative fields of the human cerebral cortex, it is necessary to distinguish speech centers that are differentiated only in humans: n, the center of auditory speech perception (the so-called Wernicke center) and the speech motor center (the so-called Broca center). The presence of these differentiated centers indicates a special role of speech for the regulation of the human psyche and behavior. However, there are other centers. For example, consciousness, thinking, behavior formation, volitional control are associated with the activity of the frontal lobes, the so-called prefrontal and premotor zones.

The representation of speech function in humans is asymmetrical. It is located in the left hemisphere. A similar phenomenon is called functional asymmetry. Asymmetry is characteristic not only of speech, but also of other mental functions. Today it is known that the left hemisphere in its work acts as a leader in the implementation of speech and other speech-related functions:

reading, writing, counting, logical memory, verbal-logical, or abstract, thinking, arbitrary speech regulation of other mental processes and conditions. The right hemisphere performs functions unrelated to speech, and the corresponding processes usually take place at the sensory level.

The left and right hemispheres perform various functions in the perception and formation of the image of the displayed object. For the right hemisphere is characterized by high speed of identification, its accuracy and clarity. This method of identifying objects can be defined as an integral-synthetic, predominantly integral, structural-semantic, that is, the right hemisphere is responsible for the holistic perception of the object or performs the function of global image integration. The left hemisphere functions on the basis of an analytical approach, consisting in a sequential enumeration of the elements of the image, i.e., the left hemisphere displays the subject, forming separate parts of the mental image. It should be noted that both hemispheres are involved in the perception of the external world. Violation of the activity of any of the hemispheres can lead to the impossibility of human contact with the surrounding reality.

It should also be emphasized that the specialization of the hemisphere occurs in the process of individual human development. The maximum specialization is noted when a person reaches the period of maturity, and then, towards old age, this specialization is again lost.

When acquainting oneself with the structure of the central nervous system, we must necessarily stop at the consideration of another brain structure - the reticular formation, which plays a special role in the regulation of many mental processes and properties. This name - reticular, or reticular - it received because of its structure, since it is a collection of sparse, resembling a thin network of neural structures anatomically located in the dorsal, medulla and posterior brain.

From the history of psychology

The reticular formation has a noticeable effect on the electrical activity of the brain, on the functional state of the cerebral cortex, subcortical centers, cerebellum and spinal cord. It is also directly related to the regulation of basic life processes: blood circulation and respiration.

Very often, the reticular formation is called the source of activity of the organism, since the nerve impulses formed by this structure determine the performance of the organism, the state of sleep or wakefulness. It is also necessary to note the regulatory function of this formation, since the nerve impulses generated by the reticular formation differ in their amplitude and frequency, which leads to a periodic change in the functional state of the cerebral cortex, which, in turn, determines the dominant functional state of the whole organism. Therefore, the state of wakefulness is replaced by the state of sleep and vice versa (Fig. 4.10).

Disruption of the activity of the reticular formation causes a violation of the biorhythms of the body. Thus, the stimulation of the ascending part of the reticular formation has a response characteristic of the state of wakefulness of the organism to a change in the electrical signal. Constant irritation of the ascending part of the reticular formation leads to the fact that a person's sleep is disturbed, he cannot sleep, the body shows increased activity. This phenomenon is called Resynchronization and is manifested in the disappearance of a slow amount of *** electrical activity of the brain. In turn, the predominance of waves of low frequency and large amplitude causes prolonged sleep.

There is also an opinion that the activity of the reticular formation determines the nature of the response to the effects of objects and phenomena of the external world. It is customary to distinguish specific and non-specific reactions of the body. In upro

Names

Anokhin Peter Kuzmich (1898-1974) - the famous domestic physiologist. He offered his own understanding of reinforcement, different from the classical (Pavlovsky). He viewed reinforcement not as an effect of the action of an unconditioned stimulus, but as an afferent signal of the reaction itself, indicating that the expected result was consistent (action acceptor). On this basis, he developed the theory of functional systems, which became widely known throughout the world. The theory proposed by Anokhin promoted understanding of the adaptive mechanisms of a living organism.

is indicative . Due to the presence of such type of reactions, the organism has the ability to subsequently form an adequate adaptive response to a new stimulus, which preserves the integrity of the organism and ensures its further normal functioning.

Thus, we can state that the human nervous system performs the functions of a system that regulates the activity of the whole organism. Thanks to the nervous system, a person is able to obtain information about the external environment, analyze it and form behavior that is adequate to the situation, that is, successfully adapt to changing environmental conditions.

The relationship of the psyche and the human brain. In the IV. BC er Alkmeon Krotonsky formulated the idea that mental phenomena are closely related to the work of the brain. This idea was supported by many ancient scholars, such as Hippocrates. The idea of ​​the relationship of the brain and psyche has evolved throughout the history of the accumulation of psychological knowledge, as a result of which more and more new versions of it appeared.

At the beginning of the XX century. From two different areas of knowledge - psychology and physiology - two new sciences were formed: physiology of higher nervous activity and psychophysiology. The physiology of higher nervous activity studies organic processes occurring in the brain and causing various bodily reactions. Psychophysiology, in turn, explores the anatomical and physiological basis of the psyche.

It should immediately be recalled that in more detail the problems of psychophysiology and the fundamentals of the physiology of higher nervous activity are studied in the framework of psychophysiology and normal physiology courses. In this section, we consider the problem of the relationship between the brain and the psyche in order to get acquainted with it in order to get a complete picture of the human psyche.

IM Sechenov made a great contribution to understanding how the brain and the human body are related to mental phenomena and behavior. Later his ideas were developed by I. P. Pavlov, who discovered the phenomenon of conditioned reflex learning. Nowadays, Pavlova’s ideas and developments served as the basis for the creation of new theories, among which the theories and concepts of N. A. Bernshtein, C. Hull, P. K. Anokhin, E. N. Sokolov, and others stand out.

I. Sechenov believed that mental phenomena are part of any behavioral act and themselves represent a kind of complex reflexes, that is, physiological phenomena. According to I.P. Pavlov, the behavior consists of complex conditioned reflexes formed in the process of learning. Later it became clear that the conditioned reflex is a very simple physiological phenomenon and no more. However, despite the fact that after the discovery of conditioned-reflex learning, other ways of acquiring skills by living beings — imprinting, operant conditioning, vicarious learning — were described, the idea of ​​a conditioned reflex as one of the ways to gain experience remained and was further developed in such psychophysiologists as E.N. Sokolov and Ch. I. Izmailov. They proposed the concept of a conceptual reflex arc consisting of three interconnected, but relatively independent systems of neurons: afferent (sensory analyzer), effector (executive, responsible for organs of motion) and modulating (controlling connections between afferent and effector systems). The first system of neurons provides for the receipt and processing of information, the second system provides the generation of commands and their execution, the third system provides information exchange between the first two.

Along with this theory, there are other very promising developments concerning, on the one hand, the role of mental processes in controlling behavior, and on the other, the construction of general behavioral regulation models involving physiological and psychological phenomena in this process. Так, Н. А. Бернштейн считает, что даже самое простое приобретенное движение, не говоря уже о сложной человеческой деятельности и поведении в целом, не может быть выполнено без участия психики. Он утверждает, что формирование любого двигательного акта есть активная психомоторная реакция. При этом освоение движения осуществляется под воздействием сознания, которое при этом осуществляет определенную сенсорную коррекцию нервной системы, обеспечивающей выполнение нового движения. Чем сложнее движение, тем больше требуется корригирующих изменений. Когда же движение освоено и доведено до автоматизма, процесс управления выходит из поля сознания и превращается в фоновый.

Американский ученый К. Халл рассматривал живой организм как саморегулируемую систему со специфическими механизмами поведенческой и генетико-био-логической регуляции. Эти механизмы большей частью врожденные и служат для поддержания оптимальных условий физического и биохимического равновесия в организме — гомеостаза — и включаются в действие тогда, когда это равновесие нарушено.

П. К. Анохин предложил свою концепцию регуляции поведенческого акта. Эта концепция получила широкое распространение и известна как модель функциональной системы (рис. 4.11). Суть данной концепции заключается в том, что человек не может существовать изолированно от окружающего мира. Он постоянно испытывает воздействие определенных факторов внешней среды. Воздействие внешних факторов было названо Анохиным обстановочной афферентацией. Одни воздействия для человека несущественны или даже неосознаваемы, но другие, — как правило, необычные — вызывают у него ответную реакцию. Эта ответная реакция носит характер ориентировочной реакции и является стимулом для проявления активности.

116 Часть I. Введение в общую психологию

Fig. 4.11. Модель функциональной системы (по П. К. Анохину)

All objects and conditions of activity affecting a person, regardless of their importance, are perceived by man as an image. This image correlates with the information stored in the memory and the motivational attitudes of the person. Moreover, the comparison process is most likely carried out through consciousness, which leads to the emergence of a decision and a plan of behavior.

In the central nervous system, the expected outcome of actions is presented in the form of a kind of nervous model, called the anokhin acceptor of the result of action. The acceptor of the result of an action is the goal towards which the action is directed. If there is an acceptor of action and an action program formulated by consciousness, the immediate execution of the action begins. This includes the will, as well as the process of obtaining information on the implementation of the goal. Information about the results of the action has the nature of feedback (inverse afferentation) and is aimed at forming the installation but with respect to the action being performed. As information passes through the emotional sphere, it causes certain emotions that affect the nature of the installation. If emotions are positive, then the action stops. If emotions are negative, then adjustments are made to the execution of the action.

The theory of functional systems P. K. Anokhina is widely spread due to the fact that it allows you to get closer to solving the question of the relationship of physiological and psychological processes. This theory suggests that mental phenomena and physiological processes play an important role in the regulation of behavior. Moreover, the behavior is basically impossible without the simultaneous participation of mental and physiological processes.

There are other approaches to consider the relationship of the psyche and the brain. So, A. R. Luria proposed to isolate anatomically relatively autonomous blocks of the brain that ensure (functioning of mental phenomena. The first block is designed to maintain a certain level of activity. It includes the reticular formation of the brain stem, the deep sections of the midbrain, the structure of the limbic system, mediobasal parts of the cortex the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain. The second block is associated with cognitive mental processes and is intended for the processes of receiving, processing and storing information Lock consists of parts of the cerebral cortex, which are mostly located in the rear and temporal areas of the cortex. The third block provides the functions of thinking, behavior and self-regulation. The structures included in the block, located in the anterior cortex.

This concept was put forward by Luria as a result of an analysis of the results of his experimental studies of functional and organic disorders and diseases of the brain. However, it should be noted that the problem of localization of mental functions and phenomena in the brain is interesting in itself. At one time, the idea was put forward that all mental processes are associated with certain parts of the brain, that is, localized. According to the idea of localism, each mental function can be “tied to” a specific organic part of the brain. As a result, detailed maps of the localization of mental functions in the brain were created.

However, after some time, facts were received that indicate that various disorders of mental processes are often associated

with damage to the same brain structures, and vice versa, damage to the same areas in certain cases can lead to various disorders. The existence of such facts led to the emergence of an alternative hypothesis - anti - localizationism - which states that the work of individual mental functions is connected with the activity of the whole brain. From the point of view of this hypothesis, certain connections have developed between different parts of the brain, ensuring the functioning of certain mental processes. But this concept was not able to explain the many violations of the brain that speak in favor of localization. Thus, the violation of the occipital portions of the cerebral cortex leads to damage to vision, and the temporal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres - to speech impairment.

The problem of localization-anti-localizationism has not been solved yet. It is safe to say that the organization of brain structures and the relationship between individual parts of the brain is much more complex and multifaceted than the currently available information about the features of the functioning of the central nervous system. You can also say that there are parts of the brain that are directly connected with certain sensory organs and movements, as well as the realization of abilities inherent in a person (for example, speech). However, it is likely that these areas are to a certain extent interconnected with other parts of the brain, which ensure the implementation of that other mental process in full.

Psychophysiological problem in psychology. Considering the interrelationship of the psyche and the brain, we cannot but get acquainted with the so-called psycho-physiological problem.

Speaking about the natural scientific foundations of the psyche, we today do not doubt that there is a definite relationship between the psyche and the brain. However, even today, the problem known since the end of the 19th century continues to be discussed. as psychophysiological. It is an independent problem of psychology and is not specifically scientific, but methodological in nature. It is related to the solution of a number of fundamental methodological issues, such as the subject of psychology, methods of scientific explanation in psychology, etc.

What is the essence of this problem? Formally, it can be expressed as a question: how do the physiological and mental processes correlate? There are two main answers to this question. The first in a naive form was described by R. Descartes, who believed that the brain has a pineal gland, through which the soul acts on animal spirits, and animal spirits on the soul. Or, in other words, the mental and physiological are in constant interaction and influence each other. This approach was called the principle of psycho-physiological interaction.

The second solution is known as the principle of psycho-physiological parallelism. Its essence consists in asserting the impossibility of a causal interaction between mental and physiological processes.

At first glance, the truth of the first approach, which consists in asserting a psycho-physiological interaction, is beyond doubt. We can cite many examples of the effect of physiological processes of the brain on the psyche and psyche on the physiology. Yet, despite the

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Часть 1 4. The origin and development of human consciousness
Часть 2 4.4. Physiological basis of the human psyche * - 4.
Часть 3 test questions - 4. The origin and development of human