INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION ACTIVITY: AT THE ORIGINS OF EXCELLENCE

The problem of mastery (and later professionalism), of course, arose long before the appearance of journalism. We are interested in the evolution of information and communication activities. Already the early stages of the formation of human society have demonstrated that it developed in the process of communication of individuals.

The era of the pre-writing culture was characterized by a mythological method of self-organization of culture. Syncretism (fusion, indivisibility, characterizing the initial state of something) permeated the perception of reality. In the period preceding the emergence of historical consciousness and the formation of ideas about linear time, the informational, cognitive, and communication and management aspects of world exploration were closely intertwined, and the first bearers of knowledge — tribal leaders, shamans, and healers — acted simultaneously as leaders and ideologists. .

The most important means of transmitting the achievements of human cognition and thinking was the word , thanks to its ability to record the same meaning for all members of the community, express the meaning necessary for joint activities, for protection, for preserving social experience.

The universality of the word with particular intensity manifested itself in the era of written culture, which united in the text the tradition of myth and faith in “the spoken, spoken, transmitted to each and every Word” [1]. The emergence of the text was of exceptional importance: it is the word and the text that will be the link at different stages of the development of information and communication activities. The text (originally sacred) will be a system-forming element of culture, and will remain so practically until our days. Possession of the Word, the Logos will acquire a special social recognition and will even correspond with the high social status of a person. The division of labor, which has given rise to new social groups, as well as the expansion of human cognitive activity, will contribute a lot to this. The craftsmanship was demanded by the “stone newspapers” of ancient Egypt - images that were read on the walls of the temples: written texts testify to this, which had a socially significant character and reflected the author's assessment of what is happening. Moreover, even then there were written responses to the “reflected reality”. Known relating to the XV – XIV centuries. BC. A review of the description of the journey to the East: the caustic tone of this “literary-critical” work, caused by the incompetence of the narrator, suggests that there are certain criteria for literary skill against those who have taken the responsibility to report real-life facts.

One of the predecessors of journalism was rhetoric (often the word is used as a synonym for oratory). She demonstrated the importance and necessity of truly high professionalism in those activities that are connected with the persuasion and motivation of people to action, with their informing. Two necessary components of professionalism - special knowledge and practical skills - were already present in the ancient Greeks' view of the heights of public speaking. The name of the first treatise on eloquence is curious: “Eloquence is a woman of conviction”. Here, not only is the essence of rhetoric captured - the concept of persuasion, but also its practical nature, its modern meaning, business purpose, is marked. Yes, rhetoric, along with philosophy, was at the heart of the educational system in ancient Greece; without it, culture and upbringing, perceived at that time as inseparable interrelationships, were inconceivable. Being inseparable from politics, she participated in the formation of a public figure who combined state thinking with the gift of a speaker. The rhytors then entered the circle of people in the “free professions” together with sophists, philosophers, mathematicians, poets, and dramatists. The rhetoric has also received a rather prosaic, albeit socially demanded expression in the work of logographers - individuals experienced in making court speeches and possessing the gift of the word. Having understood the substance of the case, they prepared for a fee the speeches of their clients, intended to appear in court. The use of the word (primarily oral) for socially important purposes gave rise to professions associated with it. A set of rules was formed, which the speaker should have guided in public in order to convince his listeners. Teaching rhetoric was expensive, and not everyone could afford it.

In the works of those who taught rhetoric, contained standards that reflect the public perception of the components of public speaking. Isokrat (436–338 BC.), Who created the largest school of eloquence in Hellas, considered the word the quintessence of culture, a means of human perfection, a guarantee of the existence and prosperity of the polis. In his writings even the “image” of a political speaker was presented. Isocrates argued: “The reputation of an honorary and decent citizen increases the audience’s trust in the speaker’s words.” We meet the same idea in Aristotle, who wrote that it is easier to convince his listeners to someone who is respectful, because a good person causes more confidence.

In Aristotelian "Rhetoric", the rationale of oratory as a special type of human activity aimed at achieving maximum conviction is given. Aristotle identifies the means and methods of effective persuasion, examines ways of making speeches that can lead to the conquest of minds. The "Rhetoric" contains a complex of knowledge that has both practical and theoretical importance for the improvement of public speaking professionalism. The experience of the ancients proved that success was predetermined not only by innate data and talent, but also by great work. The social conditionality of public speech was also revealed: for example, in Ancient Rome, the rhetorician was viewed more as an official in the service of the state and expressing his interests.

The “rhetorical branch” of the origin of journalism had another characteristic that will later become common for both the art of oral and the art of the written word: the individuality of the author. A person who spoke publicly, as a rule, was a bright personality, had an extraordinary life experience; weakness was inherent in him, but at the same time he was capable of a civil feat; he could claim recognition, honor, glory, but at the same time he was obliged to adequately meet the defeat in a noble contest with the strongest. Owing to historical time, geographical and sociocultural circumstances, the ideal of the speaker (speaker), however, did not suggest a rigidly identical model of the master of the word, the unification of creative writing.

He became a textbook example of the asceticism of an outstanding politician of ancient Greece, who led one of the political parties, Demosthenes (384–322 BC), who began his independent career with pronouncing court speeches. The path to oratorical fame for Demosthenes was fraught with overcoming considerable difficulties: he could not be forgiven for Scythian origin, he was forced to correct inborn defects of appearance and defects of pronunciation. The constant striving for self-improvement was combined with learning from the famous master Isei, with hard work on the content and form of public speaking. Demosthenes created a coherent system for preparing speeches, selecting evidence, ways to make speech expressive and complete. The ill-wishers sneered, noticing that from the speeches of Demosthenes "smelled of lamp oil," as he prepared them for a long time and lasted until dark when they had to light the lamp. But even opponents recognized the convincing power of his speeches. And although rhetorical mastery for Demosthenes gradually became a means of political struggle, rather than a source of income, it always bore the imprint of genuine professionalism.

If rhetoric enriched journalism with the author’s desire to express her opinion, historiography gave the press lessons in honesty in covering facts (although the Romans admitted that it is not harmful for a historiographer to decorate her work with flowers of eloquence). In addition, journalism has absorbed activity flows, although far from creative highs, but conducive to information exchange in society. The gradual expansion of the information and communication load of the written word, the increase in the number of people who have dedicated themselves to the creation of newsreels, memoirs, the emergence of those who made private correspondence the subject of public interest, as well as those who began to specialize in collecting news. journalism as a certain sociocultural phenomenon, as a type of public service and a special professional activity. This also contributed to the development of journalism , which inherited not only the politicization of rhetoric, but also a rich arsenal of its expressive means.

In the Renaissance, which brought Western Europe as close as possible to the emergence of journalism, the “maturing” of a writer-publicist was influenced by the process of the formation of the intelligentsia. At that time, the connection between spiritual creativity and practical activity increased. A person tried to comprehend the state of society more deeply (hence the increased interest in morality, ethics, aesthetics, historiography) and more precisely to embody his own spiritual state in practical behavior and in art. The development of social information and communication gave scope for the spiritual and practical activity of people, especially if they belonged to the emerging intelligentsia, designed to satisfy the need for the dissemination of knowledge and common values.

Domestic scientist I.S. Kon connects the emergence of intelligentsia with the breaking of class partition walls, with the emergence of the opportunity for intellectuals to exist at the expense of their labor, with the formation of a cultural audience. He emphasizes that a prerequisite for the development of this autonomous stratum of society with a special identity is the presence of sufficiently stable means of communication: “Although intellectual activity is highly individualized, it requires a constant exchange of thoughts and some general norms of formation” [2] . Of course, it cannot be argued that the journalistic profession was formed exclusively along the same lines as the intelligentsia was becoming, but it is also wrong to ignore the interconnection of the two.

Speaking as a keeper of spiritual values ​​belonging to the history of mankind, the Renaissance intelligentsia paid special attention to the Word, both verbally and in written forms (though there were exceptions: Leonardo da Vinci did not recognize empty rhetoric, book knowledge, urging them to rely on experience and reason). An event not recorded in the Word, and therefore in the text, could be erased from historical memory, as if it did not exist without its textual reflection. The name of the person, his deeds needed to be preserved, since he claimed not only for life, but also for posthumous fame.

The Renaissance era woven from controversy contained in itself the germ of the opposition of the man of the educated (Homo litteratus) to the man who produces (Homo faber). To a certain extent, this is also true for pro-journalism. On the one hand, the Renaissance time highlighted a writer-publicist like Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374) who, with pathos inherent in civilian humanism, responded to the topic of the day, anticipating Tolstoy’s motto “I can’t keep silent!”. But the political saturation of rhetoric and the rhetorical content of literature occurred ambiguously. The “proturd journalists” were children of their time. In relation to them, the words of the researcher are fair: “The intelligentsia was a completely new phenomenon ... The Middle Ages knew a knight who was called to protect society, knew a clergyman clothed with cares about the soul, and sometimes about the human body. But the secular scientist, secular preacher, secular teacher did not know. He came along with the new culture to serve her and promote it. It was a humanist, and its existence was not sweet at first, because it had to bear the brunt of the first struggle for intellectual labor on its backbone ... Diminishing before kings, princes, nobles, begging daddies and prelates, reptiles everywhere where gold rang , humanists hammered into the minds of the haves and commanders, and through them of the whole society, the idea of ​​the importance and great significance of intellectual labor ”[3].

This statement is fully applicable to the renaissance "anti-hero" of Pietro Aretino - a poet, artist, pamphletist of the XVI century, whose literary talent made the authorities not only listen to the voice of social criticism, but also pay money to those who write critical works (perhaps, not so much for his work, how much for his silence). Aretino's satirical plots, collections of letters (he was one of the first to begin to distribute in print) were frankly journalistic in nature, and the parody horoscopes made public the real facts from the lives of nobles. In some ways, Aretino's activity was reminiscent of the work of news traders, which became a common business in Rome. Not everything written by Aretino became a subject of sale and purchase, but the effect of many of his works was akin to the effect of the printed word.

The researchers note: “Aretino based his entire calculation on unlimited and absolute publicity: in a certain respect he is the forefather of journalism” [4]. Add that he is one of the first professionals of the emerging press. His professionalism is characterized not only by literary skill and education. Aretino was a well-informed man, he had a well-established search service information. Obviously, he became one of those who were able to influence public opinion (then still very weak). “The feeling of reality”, exposing pathos constituted a feature of his talent, which can be assessed only in accordance with the customs of that era, with the “social order” of time. Aretino, taking the side of the emerging bourgeoisie, actually defended his position. Publicism becomes a characteristic feature of journalism.

The “journalistic branch” of journalism receives a new impetus during the Reformation of a wide public movement in Western and Central Europe in the 16th century, which was anti-feudal in nature and took the form of a struggle against the Catholic Church. Then the political text finally ceases to be the exclusive privilege of rhetoric and with the help of the press is widely distributed. The passion of a fighter, a preacher, an ideologue who carries the Word, revelation, and truth to people will long remain part of the image of the master of political journalism. So, later, during the years of the English bourgeois revolution, pamphlet creativity will acquire not only relatively widespread distribution, but also become an expression of civic courage and resilience. Among publicists at that time met both politicians and writers. It happened that in one person the talent of a statesman and the genius of a writer were combined; this concerns, for example, John Milton (1608–1674) - the great English poet and politician. The “continuous chain of battles with evil” was distinguished by the political and journalistic activities of John Lilbern (1615–1657), which neither torture, nor the pillory, nor the prison could break.

The preaching beginning will enter into the flesh and blood of the masters of the word of different countries and peoples. Many examples of this can be found in the history of Eastern Europe. Although its sociocultural development proceeded in special ways, we are faced here with an appeal to professionalism, understood as a combination of knowledge and experience. Thus, to conduct a theological dispute, the Khazars asked the Byzantine emperor to send a “book” person to them. The choice fell on the famous creators of the Slavic alphabet - the brothers Cyril (827–869) and Methodius (c. 815–885). Attention attracted their education and experience of public debate.

"The archetype of the master" was not alien to the Russian journalistic tradition. We are talking not only about those monks of the 11th – 11th centuries who are "able to speak grammar and rhetoric," but also about the first Russian writers and publicists whose bookishness and rebellious spirit were indissolubly fused; for the sake of truth, these people were ready to undergo persecution, imprisonment, exile. These writers did not stand apart from the general flow of European culture. So Maxim Grek (c. 1475–1556) was acquainted with the Italian printer AldoManucius, the humanists Pico della Mirandola and Marsilio Ficino. The secular Russian publicist Ivan Peresvetov (XVI century) in his work reflected international political experience and Russian heretical free-thinking.

But the literary writer was not the only prototype of a professional journalist. As journalism evolved, it absorbed representatives of various activities.There was a kind of attraction-repulsion of components, which in the future will determine the journalistic division of labor. For example, the first printer, the printer himself created the fonts, served as editor, publisher, seller. His activity seemed to be purely technical, but it was the typographer in Western Europe who received the preemptive right to create a newspaper: in 1540, the Viennese typographer Hans Zingriner was given the privilege of “announcing all the news concerning the city”, and in 1615 his compatriot Gregor Gelgbaar began to publish "Ordinary and extraordinary news and all that concerns them." In 1605 in Antwerp, the typographer Abraham Vergeven received the right to print and engrave, as well as sell news about victories, taking cities. The creators of the newspaper became booksellers and postmaster.The first handwritten Venetian newspapers were published by professional news gatherers combined into a special workshop. The handwritten newspapers distributed the Fugger banking house (Germany, Augsburg), which used a network of agents who collected business information.

Thus, journalism included those who owned the word, and those who possessed the news, and those who had the opportunity to distribute the news.