Lecture
Forms of independent physical-culture and sports activity
are determined by their goals and objectives (see
1.6 for more detail). Forms of physical
culture and sport are divided into curricular
and extracurricular. Curricular forms (regulated in time, oriented
toward implementation of the Federal State Educational
Standard – FGOS) include physical education lessons
(classes) in educational organizations: preschool, school, professional secondary
and higher institutions. In addition, there are
sports and health-improving training sessions (workouts) by
sport type in supplementary education organizations (sports schools).
Extracurricular forms (not regulated as to time
of conduct; not reflecting the requirements of
federal state standard curricula – FGOS) include: morning
hygienic gymnastics; hardening procedures, physical-culture breaks; outdoor
games; walking, ski, and bicycle outings; sports
festivals; sports competitions, one-day and multi-day hikes. The
main form of physical education at school
is the lesson; at a university it
is the practical training session. 74 The lesson
(class) consists of three parts: introductory-preparatory, main,
and concluding. Depending on the age group
of the students it has a time interval
(preschool educational organizations – from 12 to
30 min.; middle school – 40 min.;
professional educational organizations and sports schools – 90
min.) Table 2.2.1 Structure of a physical
education lesson (class) Part: Preparatory, Main, Concluding
Solves the pedagogical tasks of the lesson: educational,
health-improving, upbringing. Preparatory part. Educational tasks –
teach the basic positions and exercises, develop
physical qualities. Health-improving/developmental tasks – adapt the student's
body to the upcoming physical load, prepare
it to carry out the main tasks
of the lesson. Upbringing tasks – teach discipline
and execution of the teacher's commands. Main
part. Educational tasks – solve the main
tasks of the lesson by developing motor abilities:
create an understanding of the exercise, teach
the motor action; improve the motor action
by complicating the technique of performance; assess the
technique of the exercise performed. Health-improving/developmental tasks
– increase the functional capacities (reserves) of
the cardiovascular, respiratory, and musculoskeletal systems of the
body. Upbringing tasks – teach safety technique,
coordinated actions within the group; teach spotting
and self-spotting when performing exercises. Concluding part.
Educational tasks – check whether the task of
the main part of the lesson has
been accomplished, give the students an assessment
for the lesson. Health-improving/developmental tasks – restore the
student's functional state. Upbringing tasks – teach
the collective tidying away of apparatus, equipment,
and inventory. The means of physical education include
physical exercises, the health-improving forces of the
natural environment, and hygienic factors (sun, air,
and water). Comprehensive use of these means makes
it possible to effectively solve health-improving, educational,
and upbringing tasks. 75 Physical exercises are
motor actions aimed at solving the tasks of
physical education. The number of physical exercises
developed and used in various sports is
extremely large. They differ substantially from one another
in form, in content, and in purpose.
The health-improving forces of nature exert a
substantial influence on those doing physical exercise. Changes
in meteorological conditions (solar radiation, the effect
of air and water temperature, changes in
atmospheric pressure at sea level and at altitude,
movement and ionization of the air, and
so on) cause certain biochemical changes in
the body, which lead to a transformation of
a person's state of health and working
capacity. The health-improving forces of nature are
used in two directions: - as accompanying conditions
(classes in a forest, on the shore
of a body of water, in conditions
of a mountain climate), i.e. they accompany the
activation of the biological processes caused by
physical exercise, raise the body's general working
capacity, slow the process of fatigue, and increase
the body's general resistance to a number
of unfavorable environmental influences; - as relatively
independent means of health improvement and hardening in
the organization of special dosed procedures (hardening
sessions, sun, air, and water procedures). Under
optimal exposure they become a form of active
rest and increase the effect of recovery.
One of the main requirements for the
health-improving forces of nature is their systematic and
comprehensive application in combination with physical exercises.
The hygienic factors that promote the strengthening
of health and increase the effect of physical
exercise on the human body, stimulating the
development of the body's adaptive properties, include
personal and public hygiene (cleanliness of the body,
cleanliness of the places 76 of exercise,
air, etc.), observance of the general daily
routine, the regimen of motor activity, and the
regimen of nutrition and sleep. Observance of
hygienic rules in the process of physical
education strengthens the positive effect of physical exercise.
Walking and running. The most accessible and
useful means of physical training are walking
and running in the open air in park-forest
conditions. Walking is a natural type of
movement in which a large number of
muscles, ligaments, and joints take part. Walking improves
the body's metabolism and activates the activity
of the cardiovascular, respiratory, and other body
systems. The intensity of the physical load during
walking is easily regulated in accordance with
the state of health, physical fitness, and
the training level of the body. The effectiveness
of walking's effect on the human body
depends on the length of the stride,
the speed of walking, and its duration. A
short warm-up should be done before training.
Table 2.2.2 Approximate distance and time spent
walking during the first thirty training sessions (V.S.
Matyazhov) Training days, Distance km, Average time
per 1 km of route (min), Duration
of training (min) 1-4: 2, 15, 30 5-7:
3, 15, 45 8-9: 3, 13, 39
10-12: 4, 13, 52 13-15: 5-4, 12,
60-48 16-18: 5, 12, 60 19-21: 5, 10,
50 22-24: 6, 12, 72 24-25: 6,
10, 60 26-27: 7, 10, 70 28-30:
8, 10, 80 77 When determining the physical
load, one should take the heart rate
(pulse) into account. The pulse is counted
during brief stops while walking and immediately after
finishing training. When finishing a training walk,
you should gradually reduce your speed, so
that during the last 5-10 minutes of walking
the heart rate is 10-15 beats/min lower
than that indicated in the table. 8-10
minutes after finishing training (after rest) the pulse
rate should return to the initial level
it was at before training. The increase
in the distance and speed of walking
should build up gradually. Table 2.2.3 Determining the
optimal intensity of walking by heart rate
(V.S. Matyazhov), beats/min Walking time (min): Heart
rate for men (for women, 6 beats/min more)
Under 30 years: 30-39 years: 40-49 years:
50-59 years: 60-69 years 30: 145-155, 135-145,
125-135, 110-120, 100-110 60: 140-150, 130-140, 120-130, 105-115,
95-105 90: 135-145, 125-135, 115-125, 100-110, 90-100
120: 130-140, 120-130, 110-120, 95-105, 85-95 Alternating
walking with running. Given good well-being and free
performance of walking training loads, one can
move on to alternating running with walking,
which provides a gradual buildup of load and
makes it possible to control it in
strict accordance with one's individual capabilities. After
doing running alternated with walking, and given good
well-being, one can move on to continuous
running. Running is the most effective means
of strengthening health and raising the level of
physical fitness. 78 In the course of
evolution, wise nature programmed the human body
for high reliability and durability, calculated by specialists'
estimates to be no less than 120-150
years of healthy life. However, realizing this
tempting program is not so simple. It is
hindered by certain deviations that occur in
the cardiovascular system. There are many means
of strengthening the cardiovascular system, and health-improving running
is increasingly taking a leading place among
them. Table 2.2.4 Approximate duration of continuous
running in a single session over 4 months
of training (V.S. Matyazhov) Sex, Age (years),
Duration of running by month (min): 1st,
2nd, 3rd, 4th Men: Under 24: 10, 13,
16, 20 25-33: 10, 12, 15, 18
35-44: 8, 10, 13, 16 45-59: 6,
8, 11, 14 60 and older: 4, 6,
9, 12 Women: Under 21: 8, 11,
14, 17 22-29: 6, 9, 12, 15
30-41: 4, 7, 10, 13 42-57: 3, 5,
8, 11 58 and older: 2, 4,
6, 9 With systematic training, men can
further increase the time of continuous running to
50-70 min (8-10 km) or more, women
to 40-50 min (5-6 km) or more.
The following intensity regimens can be recommended for
running, based on well-being and heart rate.
The choice of running duration depends on
the fitness of those training. Regime I. The
comfort zone. Used as the main regime
for beginning runners with up to one
year of experience. The runner is accompanied by
a feeling of pleasant warmth, the legs
work easily and freely, breathing is through
the nose, the runner maintains the chosen speed
without difficulty, nothing hinders them, and a
desire arises to run faster. 79 Athletes
use this regime to recover after intense training.
Heart rate immediately after running is 20-22,
after 1 minute 13-15 beats per 10
s. Regime II. The comfort and light-effort zone.
For runners with 2 years of experience.
The runner feels pleasant warmth, the legs
continue to work easily and freely, breathing is
deep and mixed through the nose and
mouth, slight fatigue is a hindrance, running
speed is maintained with a little effort. Heart
rate immediately after running is 24-26, after
1 minute 18-20 beats per 10 s.
Regime III. The intense-training zone. For runners with
3 years of experience, and as a
training regime for athletes. The runner is
hot, the legs, especially the thighs, become somewhat
heavy, there is not enough air on
inhalation, lightness has disappeared, it is hard
to maintain the pace, speed is maintained by
willpower. Heart rate immediately after running is
27-29, after 1 minute 23-26 beats per
10 s. Regime IV. The competition zone. For
runners taking part in running competitions. The
runner is very hot, the legs grow
heavy and «bog down», breathing is strained with
a high frequency, excessive tension of the
neck, arm, and leg muscles is a
hindrance, running is done with difficulty, and despite
effort, the finishing speed drops. Heart rate
immediately after running is 30-35, after 1
minute 27-29 beats per 10 s. The main,
if not the only, training method in
health-improving running is the even (or evenly
accelerated) method, whose development is associated with
the name of A. Lydiard. Its essence lies
in the fact that the whole distance
is covered at an even pace at
a constant speed. Beginning runners can use alternating
walking and running as a preparatory means.
For example, 50 m of running and
150 m of walking, then 100 m of
running and 100 m of walking. The
running segments should increase involuntarily, in a
natural way, until the running becomes continuous. 80
Of the whole rich arsenal of training
means for middle- and long-distance runners, only
three suit lovers of health-improving running: 1. Light
even running for 20 to 30 minutes
at a pulse of 120-130 beats per
minute. For beginning runners this is the basic
and only training means. Trained runners use
it on unloading days as light training
that promotes recovery. 2. Long even running along
a relatively level route for 60 to
120 minutes at a pulse of 132-144
beats/min once a week. Used to develop and
maintain general endurance. 3. Cross-country running for
30 to 90 minutes at a pulse
of 144-156 beats/min 1-2 times a week. Used
to develop endurance only by well-trained runners.
A session begins with a warm-up lasting
10-15 minutes. It is necessary in order to
«warm up» the muscles, prepare the body
for the upcoming load, and prevent injuries.
When starting to run, it is important to
observe the most important condition – the
running pace should be unhurried and even,
running should bring pleasure, «muscular joy». If the
load is too high and fatigue sets
in quickly, the pace should be reduced
or its duration somewhat shortened. Running should be
light, free, rhythmic, natural, not strained. This
automatically limits the running speed and makes
it safe. One needs to find one's own
optimal speed, one's own pace. This is
a purely individual concept – a speed
that suits only you and no one else.
One's own pace is usually developed over
two to three months of training and
is then maintained for a long time. «Health
paths» – terrain-cure trails. The health-improving and
training effect on «health paths» is provided
by the combined action of physical exercise and
the natural factors of the environment. 81
The paths are laid out in park-forests
or forest tracts in conditions of broken terrain,
and have a defined length. The effect
consists in increasing the length of the
distance covered (km) or increasing the speed of
covering the distance over time (hour). Swimming.
Swimming is practiced during the summer vacation
period in open bodies of water, and during
the rest of the academic year in
indoor or open heated pools (Table 2.2.4).
In the initial period of training it is
necessary to gradually increase the time spent
in the water from 10-15 to 30-45
minutes and try to cover, without stopping, 600-700
m in the first five days, 700-800
m in the second five days, and
then 1000-1200 m. For those who swim poorly,
one should first swim a distance of
25, 50, or 100 m, but repeat
it 8-10 times. As swimming technique and endurance
are developed, move on to covering the
indicated distances. Health-improving swimming is done evenly
at moderate intensity. The heart rate immediately after
covering the distance for ages 17-30 should
be within 120-150 beats/min. Table 2.2.5 Program
for maintaining a good level of physical fitness
Swimming for all ages (K. Cooper) Distance
(m), Time (min, s), Frequency of sessions
per week 550: 10.01-15.00, 6 725: 13.21-20.00, 4
825: 15.01-22.30, 4 900: 16.41-25.00, 3 In
the process of physical education both general
pedagogical methods, used in all cases of teaching
and upbringing, and specific methods, based on
active motor activity and characteristic only of
the process of physical education, are used. The
specific methods include: - the method of
regulated exercise; 82 - the game method;
- the competitive method; - verbal and sensory
methods. Methods of regulated exercise. Strict regulation
of exercises is the main methodological direction
in the process of physical education. This direction
is characterized by the fact that each
exercise is performed in a strictly specified
form and load. The game method. It
can be applied on the basis of any
physical exercises and is not necessarily connected
with any games. The game method is
used in order to comprehensively improve motor activity
under various conditions, to develop such qualities
and abilities as agility, speed, orientation, resourcefulness,
independence, and initiative. The method is widely used
in the educational-training process in order to
reduce the monotony of training loads. The
competitive method. It is applied when solving various
pedagogical tasks. This means, above all, improving
skills and abilities under complicated conditions for
the development of physical and moral qualities. The
factor of rivalry in the process of
competition mobilizes a person's physical and mental
abilities on the basis of the functional capacities
of their body. A mandatory condition for
the competitive method is the readiness of
those training and the performance of exactly those
exercises and actions in which they must
compete [13]. Verbal and sensory methods presuppose
the broad use of words and sensory information.
In educational-training sessions, words may be used
and expressed in the form of a
didactic story, conversation, discussion, instruction, explanation, directions, commands,
evaluation, and self-command. Sensory methods provide demonstrativeness,
which in physical education is understood quite
broadly. This is not only visual perception, but
also auditory and muscular 83 (proprioceptive) sensations.
Sensory methods can be implemented in the
form of demonstrating the exercises themselves, showing visual
aids, films, and video demonstrations. In the
general list of sensory methods one may
include: - the method of directed «feeling through»
of movements, in which attention is drawn
to muscular sensations under various variants of
performing the motor task; - the method of
orientation, i.e. introducing object-based landmarks into the
tasks (flags, targets, special marking of the
hall); - the method of leading and current
sensory programming, in which special apparatus is
often used, frequently with feedback (video and
sound leaders indicating, for example, a discrepancy between
the given and actual pace of execution).
1. Name the forms, means, and methods of independent physical-culture
and sports activity.
2. Using the recommendations given in the text and other
sources, draw up a plan of your own individual training in a
health-improving or training regime, indicating the volume and
intensity of the physical load.
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