Lecture
One of the main tasks of education in the field of physical culture is to
form a person's need for physical self-improvement. The success of this
process is determined by the availability of free time, the material base
for classes, the personality of the instructor, the state of health of
those engaged, the socio-economic requirements of society and the
collective, general culture, as well as a person's competencies in the
field of physical culture and sport. The need for physical self-
improvement is a cultural habit of applying the means of physical culture
in everyday life. The formation of goals (to be physically healthy, to
have good command of one's body, etc.) is conditioned by many factors,
including upbringing in the family, school, and university, and by
literature, art, mass media, and one's immediate environment.
Introducing student youth to physical culture – is
an important component in shaping a healthy lifestyle.
Alongside the broad development and further improvement of
organized forms of physical culture activity, independent
exercise plays a decisive role. A young person who has
completed training in the discipline «Physical
Culture and Sport» should display a motivational-
value attitude toward physical culture, a formed need for
systematic exercise and sport, and for physical self-
improvement. Beliefs and views play an important role.
They characterize a person's worldview and give their
actions importance, significance, and direction.
Motivation is an impulse to action; a psychophysiological process
that governs a person's behavior, giving it direction, organization,
activity, and stability; the ability of a person to actively satisfy
their needs. A motive is defined as what drives a person's activity,
what it is done for, while a goal is what one strives toward.
Motives for engaging in physical exercise are conventionally divided
into general and specific. General motives include a person's desire
to engage in physical exercise in general. Specific motives include
the desire to perform certain particular exercises, a preference for
engaging in a specific sport. For example, almost all children
prefer games, while adolescents already differentiate among them:
some like gymnastics, others volleyball, and so on; these motives
are linked to the results of the activity and are caused by the
satisfaction of a person's need for self-improvement, self-
expression, and self-affirmation. Unfortunately, numerous scientific
and practical data indicate that physical-culture and sporting
activity has not yet become a pressing need for students, and has
not become part of their circle of personal interests. A regular
decline is noted in all the motivational factors of students from
junior to senior years, since senior students evaluate the aspects
of their studies more critically, linking them to their professional
training. Students have been found to underestimate factors such as
spiritual enrichment, the development of cognitive abilities, and
the expansion of the range of their physical-culture and sporting
activity, which influence a person's value-motivational attitudes.
As many years of experience show, when choosing sports (or systems
of physical exercise), most students do not display clear,
conscious, and well-founded motivation.
Health is a leading factor determining the full performance of
all life functions: the harmonious development of a young
person, success in mastering a profession, and the
fruitfulness of future work activity. Physical exercise,
physical culture, and sport are widely used to strengthen
health. The human body is programmed by nature for movement,
and motor activity should continue throughout one's whole
life. Special studies have established that the bodies of
physically active 50-60-year-old men have higher functional
capabilities than those of 30-year-olds with a limited motor
regimen. It is no accident that all long-livers are
distinguished by increased motor activity throughout their
lives. In modern society, especially among city dwellers,
there is no other means of increasing motor activity besides
physical culture and sport. Therefore mass sport, in all its
forms connected with active motor activity, is intended to
promote the normal functioning of the body's main systems, to
improve this activity, and to create the preconditions for
maintaining and strengthening health. Physical development is
closely related to health. Engaging in individual sports or
exercise systems can promote the development of certain organs
and body systems. With the help of appropriately selected
physical exercises, it is possible to improve many indicators
of physical development (body weight, chest circumference,
vital lung capacity) and to correct physique deficiencies. But
before deciding on correcting one's physique, or on selecting
special exercises or sports, one should form a firm idea of
the ideal physique. Only after that should a decision be made
about choosing a sport or system of physical exercise
(different sports and exercises will contribute differently to
solving the task you have set for yourself).
At present, in many universities, when organizing the educational
process, the leading place is given to gymnastics, track and field,
skiing, and sports games – basketball, volleyball, and
football. Modern gymnastics is regarded as a system of specially
selected physical exercises and methodological techniques used to
strengthen health and achieve harmonious physical development. A
distinction is made among basic gymnastics, applied forms of
gymnastics, sport and rhythmic gymnastics, sports acrobatics,
sports aerobics, and fitness aerobics. Three categories of fitness
aerobics – classic, step, and dance – are recommended
by the Russian Fitness Aerobics Federation for teaching in the main
preschool, school, and vocational educational institutions. Regular
gymnastics classes help develop the ability to control one's body,
strengthen the musculoskeletal system, and improve the main
physical qualities. The nature of gymnastic exercises and the
methodology of conducting a gymnastics class make it possible to
determine in advance, with relative precision, the optimal load on
the body and the expected result. Track and field is quite an
effective means of strengthening students' health, developing their
physical, moral, and volitional qualities, and mastering
professionally necessary motor skills. The undeniable health-
improving effect of this sport is determined by the favorable
environment of the sessions, the involvement of all the main muscle
groups in dynamic, all-round work, and a pronounced increase in the
activity of the respiratory and circulatory organs. For a person of
modern technical civilization, suffering from a sedentary
lifestyle, improper nutrition, and stress, health-improving cross-
country skiing has acquired the significance of a stimulator of the
body's vitality. Skiing runs and ski walks are recognized as among
the most effective means of aerobic training, since they engage 65
most of the muscles of the legs, arms, and torso in work. Thanks to
the activation of a large muscle mass, the body develops a high
capacity for oxygen saturation, the cardiovascular system is
strengthened, and the body's resistance to colds increases. Playing
basketball promotes the effective development of speed-strength
qualities, coordination abilities, and speed endurance. Intense
physical loads are provided by the high functional capacity of the
cardiovascular and respiratory systems, as well as by the rational
activity of three regulatory systems: central nervous, autonomic
nervous, and hormonal. Over the hundred years of its existence,
volleyball has become one of the most widespread and universally
accessible sports games. Volleyball enthusiasts of all ages and
professions play on beaches, forest clearings, open summer and
winter courts, and in gyms. Playing volleyball provides all-round
development of physical qualities and psychophysical abilities.
Those who play volleyball are distinguished by strength and speed
of movement, flexibility and mobility, high reaction speed,
excellent spatial orientation, and excellent tactical thinking and
decisiveness in complex game situations. In a university setting,
playing mini-football is the most suitable option. The simplified
rules of the game and the ability to use any court increase
interest in this sport and make it accessible to a wide range of
people. The variety of movements, the collective principle of motor
activity, the emotionality and dynamism inherent to mini-football,
promote the development of speed-strength qualities, endurance, and
agility, and the formation of professionally significant motor
skills and abilities.
At present, athletic gymnastics and aerobics
are the most popular among students.
Athletic gymnastics has been known since deep antiquity: our ancestors
learned from experience that physical loads with resistance make
muscles stronger, joints more mobile, and the body more resilient.
Today, athletic gymnastics is one of the mass forms of physical
exercise; it represents a system of strength-oriented gymnastic
exercises aimed at the harmonious physical development of a person and
the solution of specific strength-training tasks. The popularity and
accessibility of athletic gymnastics is linked to the wide choice of
exercise sets and means of resistance, and to the possibility of
precisely dosing the amount of resistance and the volume and intensity
of the strength load according to individual physique characteristics,
level of physical development, and functional capabilities of the
body. With the help of athletic gymnastics, one can achieve
proportional development of the body, emphasize the beauty of its
proportions, and give one's figure a slender look. The effect of
strength gymnastic exercises on those engaged in them can be either
general in nature (on the body as a whole) or local (on a muscle group
or a link of the musculoskeletal system). To ensure the proper effect
of strength training and to manage the training process, an auxiliary
group of exercises is distinguished, which includes: physical
exercises that accompany strength development (for flexibility,
agility, speed), for switching movement patterns and active
recreation, and for stretching and relaxation.
Even in the ancient world, physical exercises performed to
music were used to develop good posture, gait, plasticity of
movement, strength, and endurance. One variety of Greek
gymnastics was orchestics, a dance-oriented form of
gymnastics. It can rightly be considered the forerunner of
all existing rhythmic and rhythmoplastic systems of exercise.
The term «aerobics» was first introduced by K. Cooper in
1960. Its origin comes from the word aerobic, i.e., proceeding with
the participation of oxygen, which has a physiological basis. At
first, in his system of health-improving exercise, Cooper proposed
only cyclic sports, but he soon expanded the range of means used and,
among others, included gymnastic aerobics in it. In our country, in
the mid-1980s, aerobics differed somewhat in the character of the
movements used and was called «rhythmic gymnastics». A
number of authors developed a classification of the means of rhythmic
gymnastics, which formed the basis of its types. The main types of
aerobics are: basic aerobics, step aerobics, slide aerobics, and
dance aerobics ("body dance").
Modern aerobics is a dynamic structure that constantly
renews its arsenal of means used. Newer and newer types of
health-improving «aerobic» classes (in Western
terminology) keep appearing, using various implements,
exercise machines, and other technical devices. The effect
of each of these types is of a specific nature.
Planning of independent exercise is carried out by students under the
guidance of instructors. It is reasonable to develop long-term plans
for independent exercise for the entire period of study, depending on
one's state of health, medical group, and initial level of physical
and sporting fitness. It should be taken into account that during the
period of preparing for and taking tests and exams, the volume and
intensity of physical exercise should be somewhat reduced. When
exercising independently, it is important to monitor the wave-like
pattern of physical loads, taking into account mental strain over the
course of the academic year, which should increase smoothly from year
to year. When planning independent exercise, one should remember the
goal facing students – to preserve health and to maintain a
high and stable level of mental and physical working capacity. In
addition, the long-term plan must provide for the stages of
preparation and their predominant orientation. Drawing up a long-term
plan should not be reduced to the mechanical reproduction of several
annual plans; instead, it should reflect the tendency of requirements
for various aspects of an athlete's preparation to increase from year
to year, i.e., long-term planning must always be purposeful. It is
advisable to systematically analyze the state of the body using
subjective data (sleep, desire to exercise) and objective data (heart
rate, blood pressure). For this purpose, keeping a self-monitoring
diary is recommended. To manage the process of independent exercise,
it is recommended to keep preliminary, current, and final records,
entering the results in a personal self-monitoring diary. Preliminary
record-keeping consists of establishing the initial data on levels of
fitness, training, and physical development. Current record-keeping
helps in analyzing training sessions (fulfillment of the volume and
intensity of the load); the number of sessions held per week, month,
and year, and participation in competitions are recorded, which makes
it possible to introduce corrections into the training plan. In
current plans, the means of training are listed more specifically,
and the volumes of training loads and the dates of sports
competitions are specified. Planning of the annual cycle is carried
out taking into account the periods of preparation (preparatory,
competitive, and transitional) in accordance with the regularities of
the development of sporting form (the phase of formation, the phase
of stabilization, and the phase of temporary loss). Final record-
keeping is carried out at the end of a period of training or at the
end of the annual cycle, with the aim of comparing data and
correcting training plans for the following year.
Means and methods of control may be pedagogical, psychological,
or medico-biological in nature. They depend on the
peculiarities of the specific sport (system of physical
exercise), the composition of those engaged, the availability
of special equipment, and other material and technical
possibilities and conditions. The pass/fail requirements serve
as criteria for the effectiveness of training sessions. The
first structural unit of the training process is a single
session. Within it, the tasks of an athlete's training are
directly addressed [28]. The existing structure of a session is
determined by the regular changes in the functional state of an
athlete's body during work. In the introductory part of the
session, organizational matters are addressed (formation, the
duty officer's report, greetings, the specification of the
session's tasks, and the formulation of methodological
instructions and recommendations); its duration is 2-4 minutes.
Next comes the practical component, or warm-up, which means
performing a set of specially selected exercises that help
prepare those engaged optimally for the upcoming work. The
warm-up is divided into two parts: general and special. The
first promotes the activation of the body's systems – the
musculoskeletal apparatus, the central nervous system, and the
cardiovascular and respiratory systems. In this part of the
warm-up, general developmental and preparatory exercises are
used. In the second part of the warm-up, specially preparatory
exercises are applied. They are aimed at preparing and tuning
an athlete's body for specific activity. The duration of the
warm-up, the selection of exercises, and their proportion may
vary considerably and depend on the individual characteristics
of each athlete, the nature of the upcoming work, the
conditions, etc. 70 In the main part of the session, its main
tasks are addressed. The work performed can be extremely
varied. It can affect aspects of athletes' fitness in a wide
variety of combinations. The duration of the main part of the
session depends on the nature and methodology of the exercises
used in it, the magnitude of the training load, the training
effect, and so on. In the concluding part of the session, in
order to bring the body of those engaged into a state as close
as possible to the initial one, and to create conditions for
the fuller development of recovery processes, corresponding
exercises of reduced intensity are performed. The basis for
planning loads in physical education and sport is a person's
state. In practical work, the following types of physical state
are taken into account: stable, current, and operative. A
stable state can be maintained for a relatively long time
(weeks or even months). A stable state is the result of many
training sessions, the effects of which gradually accumulate.
In this case it is correct to say that a cumulative training
effect underlies stage-level states. The current state is
characterized by day-to-day fluctuations in the level of
fitness of those engaged in physical culture and sport. The
load of any given session raises or lowers this level, but such
changes are usually eliminated during the rest intervals
between sessions. The operative state of a person exercising is
their state at the moment of performing an exercise (or
immediately after its completion). It is unstable and changes
quickly after rest between repetitions of an exercise or a
reduction in its load. The effect of physical exercise on a
person is linked to the load on their body, which causes an
active reaction of the functional systems [29]. To determine
the degree of strain on these systems under load, indicators of
intensity are used, which characterize the body's reaction to
the work performed. There are many such indicators: changes in
motor reaction time, respiratory rate, minute oxygen uptake
(MOU), and so on. Meanwhile, the most convenient and
informative indicator of load intensity, especially in cyclic
sports, is heart rate (HR). Individual zones of load intensity
are determined with reference specifically to heart rate.
Physiologists distinguish four zones of load intensity by heart
rate: 0, I, II, III [30]. The zero zone is characterized by an
aerobic process of energy conversion at a heart rate of up to
130 beats/min for people of student age. At this load
intensity, no oxygen debt arises, so a training effect may
appear only in poorly prepared individuals. The zero zone can
be used for warm-up purposes when preparing the body for a
higher-intensity load, for recovery (in repeated or interval
training methods), or for active rest. A significant increase
in oxygen uptake, and consequently a corresponding training
effect on the body, occurs not in this zone but in the first
zone, which is typical for developing endurance in beginners
[30]. The first training intensity zone (from 130 to 150
beats/min) is most typical for beginner athletes, since the
growth of achievements and oxygen uptake (with the aerobic
process of its metabolism in the body) occurs in them starting
from a heart rate of 130 beats/min. In this connection, this
threshold is called the readiness threshold. When developing
general endurance, a prepared athlete is characterized by a
natural «entry» into the second intensity zone. In
the second training zone (from 150 to 180 beats/min), anaerobic
mechanisms of muscular energy supply come into play. It is
considered that 150 beats/min is the anaerobic threshold (AT).
However, in poorly prepared individuals and in athletes with
poor sporting form, the AT may occur even at a heart rate of
130-140 beats/min, whereas in well-trained athletes the AT may
«shift» to a boundary of 160-165 beats/min. In the
third training zone (more than 180 beats/min), anaerobic
mechanisms of energy supply are improved against the background
of a significant oxygen debt. Here pulse rate ceases to be an
informative indicator for dosing the load, but indicators of
the biochemical reactions of the blood and its composition, in
particular the amount of lactic acid, gain in importance. The
rest time of the heart muscle decreases as contractions exceed
180 beats/min, which leads to a drop in its contractile force
(at rest: 0.25 s contraction, 0.75 s rest; at 180 beats/min:
0.22 s contraction, 0.08 s rest), and the oxygen debt sharply
increases. The body adapts to high-intensity work in the course
of repeated training work. But the maximum oxygen debt reaches
its greatest values only under competition conditions.
Therefore, to achieve a high level of training-load intensity,
methods involving the tense situations of competition are used
[30]. During independent exercise, it is also reasonable to be
guided by indicators of the body's energy expenditure. The
energy cost (kcal/min) of loads is strictly individual. Heart
rate is determined over 1 minute during or immediately after
the load.
Energy expenditure = (0.2 x HR – 11.3) / 2
Thus, if the physical load is excessive for the
capabilities of the body, fatigue accumulates and
insomnia, headache, irritability, shortness of breath,
and nausea appear. In these cases there is an urgent
need to reduce the load or temporarily stop training.
1. List the motivational factors in forming
professional qualities as interest grows in
engaging in physical culture and sport. 2.
Identify the problems of increasing student
motivation for physical culture.
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