9.2. XVII century in the history of Russia

Time of Troubles. The XVII century brought numerous tests of Russia and its statehood. After his death in 1584, Ivan the Terrible, Fyodor Ivanovich (1584-1598) became his heir and king. The struggle for power began inside the country. This situation caused not only internal contradictions, but also strengthened attempts by external forces to eliminate Russia's state independence. For almost the entire century, it had to fight off the Commonwealth, Sweden, the raids of the Crimean Tatars - vassals of the Ottoman Empire, to resist the Catholic Church, which sought to prevent Russia from Orthodoxy .

At the beginning of the XVII century. Russia went through a period called the Time of Troubles. XVII century. initiated the peasant wars; this century there are revolts of cities, the famous work of Patriarch Nikon and the split of the Orthodox Church. Therefore, this century V.O. Klyuchevsky called rebellious.

Vague time covers 1598-1613 years. During these years, the royal brother-in-law Boris Borisov (1598-1605), Fyodor Godunov (from April to June 1605), Lzhedmitry I (June 1605 - May 1606), Vasily Shuysky (1606-1610), Lzhedmitry II ( 1607-1610), Seven Boyars (1610-1613).

Boris Godunov won a difficult struggle for the throne between representatives of the highest nobility and was the first Russian tsar who received the throne not by inheritance, but through elections at the Zemsky Sobor. During his short reign, he pursued a peaceful foreign policy, resolving controversial issues with Poland and Sweden for 20 years; encouraged economic and cultural ties with Western Europe. Under him, Russia advanced to Siberia, finally defeating Kuchum. In 1601-1603 “Great Great” collapsed on Russia, caused by crop failures. Godunov took certain measures to organize public works, allowed slaves to leave their masters, distributed bread to the starving state stores. However, the situation could not be improved. The relationship between the authorities and the peasants was aggravated by the annulment in 1603 of the law on the temporary restoration of St. George’s Day, which meant an increase in serfdom. The discontent of the masses resulted in an uprising of serfs, which was led by the Cotton Kosolap. This revolt, many historians believe the beginning of the Peasant War.

The highest stage of the Peasant War, the beginning of the XVII century. (1606-1607) there was an uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov, in which serfs, peasants, townspeople, archers, Cossacks, as well as nobles joined them. The war engulfed the South-West and South of Russia (about 70 cities), the Lower and Middle Volga. The rebels defeated the troops of Vasily Shuisky (the new Russian tsar) near Kromy, Yelets, on the Ugra and Lopasnya rivers, and others. and then to Tula. In the summer and autumn of 1607, along with slaves of slave Ilya Gorchakov (Illey of Murom,? –Ok. 1608), the rebels fought at Tula. The siege of Tula lasted four months, after which the city was surrendered, the uprising was crushed. Bolotnikov was exiled to Kargopol, blinded and drowned.

At such a critical moment an attempt was made by Polish intervention. The ruling circles of the Commonwealth and the Catholic Church intended to dismember Russia and eliminate its independence. In a hidden form, the intervention was expressed in support of False Dmitry I and False Dmitry II. Open intervention under the leadership of Sigismund III began under Vasily Shuisky, when in September 1609 Smolensk was besieged and in 1610 a campaign against Moscow and its seizure took place. By this time, Vasily Shuisky was overthrown by nobles from the throne, and in Russia came the interregnum - the Seven Boyars. The Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish interventionists and was inclined to call on the Russian throne of the Polish king the minor Vladislav, a Catholic, which was a direct betrayal of Russia's national interests. In addition, in the summer of 1610, Swedish intervention began with the aim of alienating Pskov, Novgorod, north-western and north-Russian regions from Russia.

End of intervention. Fight for Smolensk. In such conditions, the independence of the Russian state could be defended and the interventionists could be driven out only by the whole people. This task was accomplished by the people's militia led by the Nizhny Novgorod elder Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. After the liberation of Moscow in October 1612, the failure of two attempts by Sigismund (1612, 1617) to seize the Russian capital, Polish intervention ended with Deulinsky 1 truce with the Commonwealth in 1618 with the new tsar from the new Romanov dynasty, Mikhail Romanov (1596-1645 ). Under this agreement, Poland received Smolensk (except Vyazma), Chernihiv and Novgorod-Seversky lands. In total, 19 Russian cities went to the Poles, including Smolensk.

In the years of the reign of Michael, in addition to the completion of the Polish intervention, the end of the Swedish intervention comes when, in 1617, the Eternal Peace was concluded in Stolbovo (near Tikhvin). Sweden returned to Russia Novgorod, Old Russ, Porkhov, Ladoga, Gdov with counties. However, many Russian cities remained behind Sweden. In addition, Russia was obliged to pay the Swedes 20 thousand rubles. and remained without access to the Baltic Sea.

In 1632-1634 The Russian-Polish (Smolensk) War was waged for the return of the Smolensk and Chernihiv lands seized during the Polish intervention. It ended with the capitulation of the Russian army, surrounded by Smolensk. Its commander M. Shein (? -1634) was accused by the boyars of treason and hanged. In the Polyanovo World, Smolensk and the Seversk lands remained behind Poland. Russia paid her a contribution of 20 thousand rubles, although from that moment on the Polish king refused to claim the Moscow throne.

Anxiety gave Russia the Crimean Khanate - a vassal of Turkey, which was at that time a strong state. In 1637, the Don Cossacks captured Azov, which belonged to Turkey, which they held for five years. By decision of the Zemsky Sobor of 1642, the Cossacks were asked to leave this port in order to avoid complications.

Despite numerous wars under the first Romanov, Russia expanded its ties with the West; Foreigners came to Russia, especially Germans. The West sold firearms to Russia, recruited hired officers and soldiers served in the Russian army. Dutch merchant A. Vinius founded the first factory near Tula for the production of iron and iron products. During these years, traveler A. Olearius (1603-1671) visited Russia, leaving a description of his journey to Muscovy.

Cathedral Code of 1649 and the strengthening of autocracy. The reign of the newcomer to the throne after the death of Mikhail Alexei Mikhailovich (1629-1676) was marked by extremely important for Russia inside - and external political events.

Under Alexei Mikhailovich, known as Tishayshim, measures were taken to strengthen the autocracy. The order of secret affairs has been created, the administration has increased - the number of orders has increased.

The largest event in the socio-political life of Russia was the drafting and adoption in 1649 of the Council Code - the first Russian legislative monument, published in the typographical way in the amount of 2 thousand copies. It was sent to guide all the governors in the cities and in all Moscow orders and translated into almost all European languages. Cathedral Code contains about a thousand articles, grouped in 25 chapters. In the first nine chapters recorded penalties for crimes against the church and royal power. It was intended to burn at the stake if God and the church were criticized. A man accused of treason and insulting the honor of the sovereign, as well as boyars, the governor was executed. The weapon that laid bare in the presence of the king was punished by cutting off the arm. Thus, in the Cathedral Code, the sovereign's personality, the honor of the sovereign of the court, was protected, the Orthodoxy, the feudal system were protected. Land tenure was consolidated as a privilege of the ruling feudal class, limited to church tenure. Serfdom received legislative design: St. George's day was canceled altogether, the feudal lords could completely dispose of the property, labor and personality of the peasant. In general, the Council Code testified to the centralization of state power, increasing the role of the nobility in strengthening the state and the movement of Russia towards absolute monarchy. Soon, the Zemstvo councils lost their role.

Foreign policy

Foreign policy. In the XVII century. the war of liberation of the Ukrainian people against the Polish-gentry oppression began. It lasted from 1648 to 1654, it was headed by the hetman of Ukraine Bogdan Khmelnitsky (c. 1595-1657). In October 1653, at the Zemsky Sobor, the proposal of the government of Tsar Alexei to accept Ukraine "under the high hand of the state" was approved. In 1654, Pereyaslavskaya Council was unanimously in favor of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, which has progressive significance for the fate of the Ukrainian and Russian peoples. Ukraine maintained a special state-political structure - hetman.

This decision caused disagreement of the Commonwealth, and the war with Russia continued in 1654-1667. Russia fought for the return of Smolensk and Chernihiv lands, Belarus and the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. In 1654-1655 Russian troops defeated the main forces of the Commonwealth, liberated Smolensk and most of Belarus. Military operations, resumed in 1658, went with varying success. Since 1660 the initiative was intercepted by Polish troops. In 1667 the Andrusovo truce was concluded, according to which Poland returned the Smolensk and Chernihiv lands to Russia and recognized the reunification of Left-Bank Ukraine with Russia.

Simultaneously with the Commonwealth of Russia in the years 1656-1658. waged war with Sweden over access to the Baltic Sea. At the initial stage, Russian troops scored major victories, in 1657-1658. hostilities went with varying success. This war ended with the signing in 1661 of the Kardis Peace, according to which Russia did not gain access to the Baltic Sea.

During the XVII century. The Crimean Khanate represented a great danger to Russia in the south (remember the siege of Azov). In 1681 the Bakhchisaray peace was concluded. Under this agreement, the Dnieper was recognized as the border between Crimea and Russia; for 20 years, the Crimean Khanate pledged not to support the enemy of the Russian state. But in 1686 Russia terminated this treaty, since according to the Eternal Peace concluded with the Commonwealth, Russia and Poland united to fight against the Turkish-Tatar aggression.

Internal political situation. Difficult in the first Romanovs was the internal political situation of the country. From 1630 to 1650 Residents rebelled - 30 cities of Veliky Ustyug, Novgorod, Voronezh, Kursk, Vladimir, cities of Siberia, etc. The largest uprisings were in Moscow (1648), Pskov and Novgorod (1650). They were suppressed, and their active participants executed.

XVII century. brought serious upheavals to the Russian church. By the middle of this century, dissatisfaction with the church was growing in Russian society, maintaining order, increasing the oppression of the common people, as well as the unseemly behavior of many clergymen, the lack of uniformity of church service. Significant discrepancies have accumulated in religious books and church rites; sacred canons interpreted controversially. Each locality had its own traditions of worship. The order of worship disagreed with the Greek rite. Thus, there is a need for church reform. In the years 1653-1660. Patriarch Nikon (1605-1681) conducted church reform. She unified church rites and established the uniformity of worship for all Orthodox churches. The Greek order was adopted as a model, all the sacred and liturgical books were corrected according to Greek models, icons of Greek writing were allowed for worship.

Despite the fact that the sovereign Alexey Mikhailovich supported the reform of Patriarch Nikon, his closest associates and higher clergy, there was a split in the Russian church. Against the reform of the church, priests and protopopes came out in Moscow (I. Neropov, S. Vifatiev), in Suzdal (N. Pustovsyat), in Yuryevets - Avvakum Petrov and other cities. They were called schismatics.

Protopop Avvakum (1620-1682) was the ideologue of Old Believers, Old Believers. They demanded a return to the old rites and traditions: to read and sing while serving at the same time different things with several voices (the reform established unanimous voice); sign of the cross to produce two fingers, and not three, as suggested by the reform; bows in worship must remain in the waist, not earthly, as introduced by the reform; they demanded a return to the course by the bead, rather than the procession towards the sun, as the reform envisaged.

On the side of the Old Believers turned out to be many citizens, peasants, archers. The split of the church became a form of social protest of the masses.

All provisions of the reform were approved by the Zemstvo councils of 1654-1656; schismatics condemned and excommunicated. Avvakum the priest was exiled to Dauria (Transbaikalia), returned to Moscow, exiled again, then stripped, cursed and burned.

The social protest of the schismatics was essentially directed towards fanaticism and asceticism, mysticism; supporters of the split denied everything new and foreign; hostile to secular culture, knowledge. Therefore, it is impossible to assess the split as a truly progressive phenomenon, although thanks to Old Belief many written monuments of past centuries have been preserved.

Nikon's intervention in the internal and external affairs of the state, justified by the fact that "the priesthood is higher than the kingdom" (the church is higher than the monarch), led to the rupture of the patriarch with the king. Zemsky Sobor 1666-1667 deprived Nikon of the patriarchate and exiled.

During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, the peasant war of 1670-1671, the largest in the history of Russia, took place. Its leader is Stepan Razin (c. 1630-1671) of the Don Cossack, chieftain, who first fought with the Crimean Tatars, then with the Turks. In 1667, with a detachment of Cossack poor, he made a trip to the Volga and Yaik, then to Persia across the Caspian Sea. In the spring of 1670 he led the Peasant War, in which he proved himself as a capable organizer and military leader. He promised to destroy slavery, to free the peasants from the power of the boyars and nobles. Along with the Cossacks, Volga peoples participated in the war. The rebels took Tsaritsyn, Astrakhan, Saratov, Samara, besieged Simbirsk, but the troops of Razin were defeated. The ataman went to the Don, but was betrayed by haughty Cossacks, captured and executed in Moscow. After the execution of Razin, the war was still going on, individual detachments performed in many cities of the Volga region, Galitsky district, in the Solovetsky monastery.

The beginning of the reign of Peter 1 .

The beginning of the reign of Peter 1 . From 1682 to 1696 The Russian throne was occupied by the sons of Tsar Alexei from various marriages - Peter (1672-1725) and Ivan (1666-1696). Since they were minors, the ruler was their sister Tsarevna Sophia (1657-1704), who ruled from 1682 to 1689. During this period, the role of Prince V. Golitsyn (1643-1714), the favorite of the princess, increased.

In 1689, Peter I reached the age of majority, married and showed a desire to fight the old obsolete boyar traditions. Sophia attempted with the help of archers, dissatisfied with the creation of regiments of the new system, the loss of many of their privileges, to deprive Peter of power. However, she failed. Peter was supported by the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, many boyars and noblemen, the Moscow patriarch and even some artillery regiments. Peter kept the throne, punished the rebellious streltsy, disbanded the rifle army, Sophia was tonsured to the monastery.

In 1696, Ivan V died; Peter became the all-ruler. The first task of Peter was to continue the struggle for the Crimea. He directed his actions to capture the Azov - Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don. But because of poorly prepared siege technology and the lack of ships, Russian troops failed. Then Peter began to build a fleet on the river. Voronezh. Having built 30 large ships in one year, having doubled the land army, Peter in 1696 blocked Azov from the sea and captured it. To consolidate on the Azov Sea, he built a fortress Taganrog.

In 1697, he traveled with the "Great Embassy" to Europe, combining a diplomatic mission with diverse educational tasks in shipbuilding, military affairs, and craft.

Russian economy in the XVII century. In the XVII century. the productive forces of Russia as a whole have evolved. The population size has grown significantly, reaching 10.5 million by the end of the century. In Russia, there were 335 cities. During this period, Russia has been known for flatting hammers, drilling machines, paper mills. 55 manufactories, mainly metallurgical, were built. To create industrial enterprises in Russia, foreign capital is attracted, and on favorable terms.

The process of social division of labor is gradually deepening, the specialization of agricultural and industrial areas is determined, the craft turns into small-scale production — all of which leads to an increase in commodity exchange. Local form of land tenure contributes to the decomposition of the natural economy. Production is being developed on the basis of the processing of agricultural raw materials: they are engaged in distilleries, making cloth, cloth, and creating flour mills and leather factories.

В России начинается процесс первоначального накопления капитала, хотя в отличие от Англии он протекал в феодальной форме – богатства накапливались у крупных землевладельцев. Происходила дифференциация населения, появляются богатые и бедные, появляются «гулящие» люди, т.е. лишенные средств производства. Они становятся вольнонаемными. Наемными рабочими могли быть крестьяне-отходники. Статус наемного работника получает законодательное подтверждение в Соборном Уложении. Все это свидетельствует о зарождении капиталистических отношений. Способствует этому и систематический рост торговли с европейскими и азиатскими странами. Российский рынок включается в систему мирового рынка, мировых экономических связей. В Западные страны Россия продает пушнину, лес, деготь, поташ, коноплю, пеньку, канаты, холсты. Если прежде в Архангельск прибывало ежегодно 20 кораблей, то в XVII в. – 80. В числе ввозимых товаров предметы потребления для феодальных верхов и серебряная монета как сырье для изготовления отечественных денег. С Восточными странами Россия торговала через Астрахань. Важную роль играли города Дагестана и Азербайджана. In the XVII century. начались торговые отношения с Китаем, Индией.

В развитии внутренней торговли также начинается новый этап. Торговые связи приобретают национальный характер. По торговым оборотам Москва занимала первое место – насчитывалось 120 торговых специализированных рядов и 4 тыс, торговых помещений.

In the XVII century. продолжалось активное освоение Сибири. Русские вышли к берегам Тихого океана, Камчатки, Курильских островов. В 1645 г. первопроходец Василий Поярков вышел по Амуру в Охотское море. В 1648 г. Семен Дежнев (ок. 1605-1673) открыл пролив, отделяющий Азию от Северной Америки. В 1649-1653 г. Ерофей Хабаров (ок. 1610 – после 1667) из Якутии совершил поход в Даурию (Забайкалье) и дошел до Амура.

Землепроходцы составляли карты Сибири, чертежи, обзоры, росписи городов, отдельных районов и всего региона в целом. В 1672 г. был составлен «Чертеж Сибирских земель». Постепенно происходили заселение Сибири, ее колонизация, основывались города-крепости, служившие им опорными пунктами для дальнейшего продвижения. Их называли острогами. Так, в 1619 г. возник Елисейский острог, в 1628 г. – Красноярский острог и др.

Расширилась торговля центральных областей с Уралом, Сибирью, Дальним Востоком, с южными окраинами. Центрами торговли были крупные ярмарки, имеющие всероссийское значение, Макарьевская с XVI в., Ирбитская с первой половины XVII в., Свенская, Архангельская.

Произошли сдвиги в социальной структуре российского общества. Утверждение в XV-XVI вв. поместной формы землевладения выдвинуло дворянство, а в XVII в. укрепились позиции купечества. Внутренняя торговля превращается в сферу приложения купеческого капитала. Купечество выделяется в особую группу и подразделяется на корпорации: гостей, гостиную сотню, суконную сотню.

Российское правительство поддерживало купечество. В 1653 г. был принят закон о внутренней и внешней торговле России: Торговая уставная грамота, заменившая множественность торговых сборов единой торговой рублевой пошлиной, в размере 5% с оборота. В 1667 г. принят Новоторговый устав, имеющий протекционистский характер и защищающий русское купечество от иностранной конкуренции.

In the XVII century. в России была проведена реформа государственных финансов, хотя она по-прежнему носила феодальный характер. Вместо посошной подати в 1678 г. вводилось подворное обложение, что расширяло число налогоплательщиков. Была изменена также система других прямых налогов.

В 1649-1652 гг. в России проведена реформа, получившая название «Посадское строение», в соответствии с которым в городах ликвидировались белые слободы 1 , их слили с посадами. Теперь тягло на государя должно было нести все городское население. «Посадское строение» было проведено в общегосударственном масштабе.

В 1679 г. различные подати, собиравшиеся с ремесленного и торгового населения посадов, были объединены в единый налог – «стрелецкие деньги» или «стрелецкую подать». Внедрялась система откупов – форма сборов налогов. «Наддача», получаемая откупщиком за право сбора налога, являлась источником первоначального накопления капитала.

Появились органы государственного контроля: в 1655-1678 гг. существовал Счетный приказ, который в конце века был заменен Ближней канцелярией. В 1654 г. проведена денежная реформа, по которой вводились в обращение медные деньги с принудительным курсом – медная копейка приравнивалась к серебряной. Реформа закончилась неудачно. Медные деньги обесценились. Ответом на такую денежную политику был Медный бунт в Москве в 1652 г. Бунт был подавлен, но правительство было вынуждено отменить медные деньги, они были изъяты из обращения.

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Эпоха XVI-XVII вв. была переломной не только для Европы, но и для России. Здесь завершился процесс складывания единого государства и определился его тип как многонационального централизованного государства. Сложилась государственная система крепостного права. В то же время в России усилилась тенденция разложения натуральности хозяйства, начинается формирование единого всероссийского рынка. Государство увеличивает свою территорию, активно участвует в географических открытиях и все более вовлекается в орбиту общеевропейской политики и торговли. Так же, как в странах Западной Европы, в России в эту эпоху проявилась тенденция ослабления церкви и продвижения государственного устройства от сословно-представительной монархии к абсолютизму. Не увенчались успехом и попытки папства втянуть Россию в сферу влияния католицизма.

Questions for self-test

1. 1. Discover how the estate-representative monarchy in Russia developed in the 16th century. - XVII century. and how the transition to absolute monarchy took place in the second half of the seventeenth century.

2. 2. What areas of social, political and economic life affected the reforms of Ivan IV, what significance did they have?

3. 3. How do you rate the oprichnina?

4. 4. Tell us about the main events of Russian foreign policy in the XVI-XVII centuries. and their consequences.

5. 5. What was the reason for the Time of Troubles, what role did it play in the awakening of national self-consciousness?

6. 6. Expand the main stages of the enslavement of peasants in Russia, show the role of the state in this process.

7. 7. Describe the content and meaning of the Council Code of 1649

8. 8. What caused the split of the church in Russia in the XVII century. What did it lead to?

9. 9. Expand the causes and nature of class and class contradictions in Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries., The forms of their resolution.