13.3. Formation of an industrial civilization

Achievements in science and technology. Bourgeois revolutions destroyed many feudal orders and ensured the rapid development of production. However, the development of the economy at such a rapid pace was impossible without the use of the achievements of science and technology. By the beginning of the XIX century. a huge amount of knowledge was accumulated in various fields of science. Constantly there were radical discoveries in science. Established a strong relationship between science and technology, stimulating the development of each other. The result of this connection, the scientific and technical activities of mathematicians, physicists, chemists, mechanics, designers, experimenters in the late XVIII-XIX centuries. steel outstanding inventions in engineering and technology, which had exceptional importance in production. The invention, which was of great importance, was the steam engine “Rocket” by S. Stephenson (1781-1848), which reached a speed of 50 km / h and marked the beginning of the development of steam railway transport. Scientists A. Volta (1745-1827), G. Devi (1778-1829), M. Faraday (1791-1867) laid the foundations for the use of electricity, a new type of energy, which found rapid use in various technical fields in the last third of the XIX century .: in industry, transmitting alphanumeric telegraph messages over a distance; electricity has been used to illuminate premises, streets (arc lighting, incandescent lamps), transport (tram), in everyday life, etc. It allowed to build factories and plants outside the city, which changed the appearance of cities.

In the second half of the XIX century. dramatically increased the importance of oil and petrochemical industry. The invention of A. Bell (1847-1922) - the phone after a few years became widespread in all developed countries of the world. Scientific discoveries and technological advances have given rise to new branches of production - chemical, electrical, and others. Computer technology, automation, and the production of artificial materials are emerging, and the properties of the atom are used. These achievements were in many ways the basis of the production of the 20th century.

Compared with the previous period, the rate of change becomes very fast, the timing of discoveries in the field of science and technology before they are introduced into production is sharply reduced. Machine industry requires continuous technological upgrades. Thus, the achievements of science and technology in the late XVIII-XIX centuries. were grand, they meant the transition to a new, second stage of scientific and technological progress, covering the period from the XIX century. until the middle of the 20th century, the stage that is the basis of industrial civilization.

Technical inventions and their use in production laid the foundation for the industrial revolution, its birthplace in the 60-70s. XVIII century. became England. The industrial revolution is a system of economic, technical, technological and socio-political changes that ensure the transition from handicraft to machine-based production. The final stage of the industrial revolution was the creation of mechanical engineering - the production of machines by machines. The prerequisites of the industrial revolution were: the accumulation of capital through manufacturing; labor market; demand for industrial production (capacity of the domestic market); protectionism policy. The industrial revolution is a general historical, natural stage in the formation and development of the capitalist system. This stage was reached and passed by various countries of Europe, North America and Japan mainly during the 19th century.

The growth of industrial production and market relations necessitated the improvement of means of transport and the development of means of communication. September 15, 1830 began the railway traffic between the industrial cities of Manchester and Liverpool.

Since the beginning of the XIX century. the use of machine tools in lathes, hydraulic presses, mechanical hammers, etc. was improved. In the 1920s and 1930s. the production of machines was made mainly by machine. The mechanization of production has created the conditions for the transition from simple cooperation to a complex of machines, which is a sign of the transition to the dominance of the large machine industry.

Features of the industrial revolution in various countries. At the beginning of the XIX century. England, far ahead of other countries in terms of the development of capitalism, became the first industrial power. New spinning, weaving and other factories, metallurgical, machine-building plants, coal mines were built. The result of the industrial revolution, which ended in England in the 30s. XIX century., It was the transformation of the country into a "mentor of European nations", "workshop of the world" in the late 30s. it produced 50% of the metal, 100% of the machines, mined 80% of the coal produced in Europe.

After the UK, the United States, France, Germany, Russia and other European countries crossed over to the stage of the industrial revolution.

With the end of the war of independence, capitalist relations were established in the northern regions of the United States. Favorable factors for the development of the industrial revolution were the absence of feudal relations, the craft system of artisans, the introduction into production of the achievements of British industry and the use of their own technical discoveries. Indians with their primitive economy were expelled or destroyed. The creation of a sewing machine, an electric telegraph, a mechanical harvester, an all-metal plow, the use of advertising and the sale of goods by installments in trade, etc. — these innovations accelerated the industrial revolution that occurred simultaneously with the colonization of Western American lands. In the 50's and 60's. there is a massive introduction to the steam engine industry and the engineering industry in general is developing. The territorial expansion of the United States (the annexation of Texas belonging to Mexico in 1845, and as a result of the victory in the American-Mexican war of 1846-1848 - more than half of Mexican lands rich in natural resources) made it possible to spread capitalist relations across the American continent in breadth.

In France, the beginning of the mechanization of cotton spinning dates back to the 80s. XVIII century., However, the process of mass replacement of manual labor with machine in the most important industries was widely developed only in the period of the July monarchy of 1830-1848. The implementation of the industrial revolution occurred when cars were imported from England. The result of the industrial revolution was the transformation of France into an industrial-agrarian country, where 2/3 of the population was engaged in agricultural production.

The delay in the transition from manufacture to industry in Germany was due to the dominance of feudal vestiges in the country and the fragmentation of the German lands. However, the sectoral structure of production at the beginning of the industrial revolution was more perfect than in England. This ensured a high rate of industrial revolution. The final stage of the industrial revolution in Germany was characterized by the further improvement of the structure of production and the growth of military and heavy industry.

The industrial revolution in Japan was due to the introduction of European technology into production and was of a compressed nature. It combined the three stages of production - manufacturing, industrial, monopolistic. By the 90th. industrial coup ended. However, the preservation of feudal remnants, weak raw material base of industry, unequal Ansei treaties ¹ hampered the emergence of large modern enterprises. In 1868-1885 about 1,300 enterprises were established, which were mainly engaged in the processing of agricultural products. In these conditions, the state acted as an entrepreneur, taking upon itself the construction of large and inefficient industries - steel mills, military shipyards, arsenals, railways. In accordance with the law adopted in 1880, enterprises created with state funds could be sold by the government for a pittance to large, successful commercial and industrial companies, such as Mitsubishi and Mitsui. By this, the Japanese state freed itself from the need to further finance inefficient enterprises and at the same time supported private entrepreneurship and strengthened ties between the bourgeoisie and the state apparatus.

Unlike England, France, and the United States, in which the necessary prerequisites for an industrial revolution were created by bourgeois revolutions of the 17th-18th centuries, in Russia the industrial revolution began before the implementation of bourgeois reforms. In the 30s-40s XIX century. under the rule of feudal relations, an industrial revolution began in Russia. The transition from manual labor to machine encompassed the cotton industry, ensuring growth in labor productivity and output, and then to the sugar-beet, paper and paper industry. Only in the Moscow province by 1856, there were 152 steam engines. Began to build intensively engineering plants. If in 1851 there were 19 engineering plants in Russia, then in 1860 there were already 99 plants. In 1860, 56.8% of the output of the entire manufacturing industry was given by factories and mills. By 1879, metal-working enterprises produced machines with 86.3% of the production. Puddling furnaces that replaced the scary forges produced about 90% of the metal.

An important direction of the industrial revolution was the construction of railways; in the 60s-70s 20 thousand km of roads were built. Completion of the industrial revolution in Russia occurred in the 80-90s. XIX century.

The social consequences of the industrial revolution

The social consequences of the industrial revolution. In addition to the technical and economic aspects, the industrial revolution had a real side, which was expressed in the transformation of the proletariat and bourgeoisie in the main classes of capitalist society. The pace of the formation of the bourgeoisie, the degree of its influence on public life, the destruction of feudal relations were not the same in different countries. In the XIX century. in England, the bourgeoisie occupied a leading position in economic life. Its number in the middle of the XIX century. accounted for 8.1% of the total population. As capitalism developed and competition intensified, profound changes took place in the alignment of forces within the bourgeois class. The petty and middle bourgeoisie periodically went bankrupt. The big bourgeoisie, which includes large manufacturers and breeders, merchants and bankers, began to play a decisive role. The commercial and industrial bourgeoisie strove for more cardinal state transformations.

The proletariat from the mass of workers began to stand out in the XVIII century. With the creation of conditions by capitalism for the transformation of the formal subordination of labor to capital into real, workers begin to form an independent social class, a class devoid of ownership of the means of production. The source of its existence is the sale of labor. The first detachment of the factory working class was textile workers. The number of workers with the growth of production is constantly increasing. In the middle of the XIX century. in the world there were 10 million workers, of which in England - 4.1 million (1851), in France - 2.5 million (1848), USA - 1.4 million (1850), in Germany - 0, 9 million (1850). By the 70th. in the three largest industrialized countries (England, France and the United States), the number of industrial workers — the core of the working class — was 12-13 million, and together with agricultural workers, 20 million. Of the total number of workers, almost half were England By the end of the XIX century. in terms of the size of the working class, the United States ranked first, with 10.4 million industrial workers.

The working class has undergone not only quantitative, but also qualitative changes. The share of factory workers engaged in the production of means of production increased. In the 70s and 80s XIX century. The most numerous detachment of industrial workers were textile workers. But by the beginning of the XX century. the situation has changed: machine builders, metallurgists, railway workers became the most numerous detachment of the working class.

The position of the working class until the 60's and 70's. XIX century. it was extremely heavy. The duration of the working day was 14-16 hours, the working and living conditions were inhuman, low wages, and female and child labor were widely used. For example, in the first half of the nineteenth century. 50-60% of those employed in the English industry were women and children. Such was the reality, and the picture of the workers' position presented in the writings of the Marxists is quite objective. The freedom, equality and fraternity proclaimed by the bourgeoisie turned out to be only a declaration. The situation of workers became especially difficult during the period of economic crises, which, as a rule, covered the whole industry and agriculture and had an impact on the economy of many countries. Crises lead to the closure of many enterprises, rising unemployment, falling wages and the standard of living of workers. The first economic crisis arose in England in 1825.

Complete political powerlessness, hard work, life in slums, hunger, diseases, high mortality caused discontent and resistance of workers to employers, led to intensifying the struggle of the working class. However, in the early days, workers ’actions against exploitation were expressed in spontaneous forms of food riots, arsons of enterprises, and the destruction of machines. The struggle of the workers grew, rose to a qualitatively new level. The first major actions of the workers took place in Manchester (England) in 1819, in Lyon (France) in 1831 and 1834, the uprising of the Silesian weavers (Germany) in 1844, the Chartist movement for the political rights of workers in the 30-40s. in England.

The growth of cities. In the XIX century. the number of cities has increased, the nature of their development has become different. Sharply intensified the process of urbanization. If in 1750 in England there were only two cities with a population of more than 50 thousand people, then in 1831 - already eight. By the end of the XIX century. the urban population accounted for 75% of the total population of the country.

In France, by 1870, the urban population increased by one and a half times compared with 1780 and amounted to one third of the population.

In the United States, urbanization became particularly active during the period of industrial expansion in the 1960s-1970s. XIX century.

In the post-reform years, the urban population increased significantly in Russia. From the 60s to the 90s. it doubled. The largest cities were Petersburg with a population of 1.2 million people. (1847) and Moscow - more than 1 million people. Cities grew rapidly in industrial centers: Warsaw, Lodz, Kiev, Baku, etc.

Ideological - political trends

Ideological - political trends. The development of capitalism, the growth of the class struggle caused the appearance in the XIX century. many different ideological course. Bourgeois economic theories have argued that the property of each person is the result of his work. The rule of law in society must be such that it is possible for each individual to receive benefits while respecting the interests and freedom of other individuals. Liberal doctrines argued the need for economic freedom as a prerequisite for the development of the economy. They proceeded from the fact that the economy is a self-regulating organism, developing according to its own laws.

Among the philosophical currents stood the theory of positivism, identifying capitalist relations with social progress and the common good. Some of the positivists saw vices in capitalism, but they believed that he himself was gradually improving and transforming himself into a prosperous society.

In the XIX century. Political liberalism has become widespread, proving that the economic modernization of society must be complemented by political and social modernization. His most prominent representatives (A de Tokqueville, 1805-1859; B. Constant, 1767-1830; G. Spencer, 1820-1903) proceeded from the fact that the state is called upon to affirm the principles of democracy, popular sovereignty, individual freedom, its political and civil rights. .

The bourgeois, liberal trends were opposed by revolutionary movements, among which utopian socialism, conspiratorial flow Blanquism (anarchism) should be called. Among these trends, utopian socialism enjoyed great influence . Capitalism was sharply criticized, it showed its vices and called for the construction of a socialist society based on planned social production, a fair distribution of the products of labor, an end to wars the utopians A. Saint-Simon (1760-1825), S. Fourier (1772-1837), R. Owen (1771-1858).

Among the revolutionary theories, a special place was taken up in the 1940s. Marxism with its enormous attractive force. The idealization of capitalism and speculativeness were alien to Marxism. Studying the economic relations of bourgeois civilization, its founders K. Marx (1818-1883) and F. Engels (1820-1895) concluded that the conflict between productive forces and production relations is the economic basis of the socialist revolution. Its driving force is the working class in alliance with the peasantry. They believed that the affirmation of public property would ensure the unlimited development of production, would establish social justice and universal abundance. The state of the working class, having fulfilled its functions, will turn into an association of self-governing communities — a system that can be called communism.Marxism quickly became an authoritative political force and led an active struggle against other political trends for influence on the working class. K. Marx and F. Engels condemned the ideas of the utopian socialist P.Zh. Proudhon (1809-1865), who opposes the participation of workers in the political and revolutionary movement; criticized MA Bakunin (1814-1876), who denied the need for the dictatorship of the proletariat, the political party of the working class and the state.

Для успешной борьбы рабочего класса с буржуазией, считали марксисты, нужна организация единомышленников, политическая партия. Первая марксистская организация была создана в 1847 г. в Германии – Союз коммунистов, программным документом которого стал написанный Марксом и Энгельсом «Манифест Коммунистической партии». «Свержение буржуазии, господство пролетариата, уничтожение старого, основанного на антагонизме классов, буржуазного общества и основание нового общества, без классов, без частной собственности ¹ », – так определили свою цель члены Союза коммунистов.

The process of industrialization in Germany, which led to a sharp increase in the number of working class, intensified the labor movement. The communists managed to lead the struggle of the working class. The center of the world socialist movement was Germany.

Общие цели борьбы рабочих всех стран ставили вопрос о создании международной организации социалистов. В 1864 г. был основан I Интернационал, объединивший не только марксистов, но и бланкистов, лассальянцев, прудонистов, тред-юнионистов. Это был ответ рабочих, беднейших слоев общества на интернациональную практику капиталистов. II Интернационал, возникший в 1889 г., находился уже полностью на марксистской платформе. Но в середине 90-х гг. внутри этой организации возникает реформистское крыло во главе с Э. Бернштейном (1850-1932), выдвинувшим программу ревизии основных положений К. Маркса. Несмотря на это к концу XIX в. марксизм становится доминирующим течением в духовной жизни буржуазного общества.

Профсоюзное движение и образование политических партий. С развитием машинного производсва и роста слоя квалифицированных рабочих возникло профсоюзное движение. В 1824-1825 гг. были легализованы профсоюзы в Англии, в 1842 г. – в США, в 1864 г. – во Франции, в 1866 г. – в Бельгии, в 1869 г. – в Германии, в 1870 г. – в Австрии.

К 80-90 гг. оформились три типа профессиональных объединений: тред-юнионы в англоязычных странах (Англия, США, Канада, Австралия); профессиональные объединения, которые находились под воздействием политических рабочих партий, стоявших на платформе различных моделей социализма (Швеция, Германия, Австрия, Бельгия, Голландия); профсоюзы анархо-синдикалистского толка (Италия, Франция, Испания), считавшие своей задачей свержение капитализма, обобществление средств производства и осуществление социалистических преобразований под руководством профсоюзов.

Социально-политическая дифференциация общества, осознание различными слоями населения своих собственных интересов, расширение прав граждан и участников политической деятельности способствовали возникновению политических партий. В Германии в 1863 г. возник Всеобщий германский рабочий союз и Социал-демократическая партия в 1869 г. Во Франции оформилась Рабочая партия Франции, возглавляемая Ж, Гедом (1845-1922) и П. Лафаргом (1842-1911); в 1880 г. В Австрии в 1888 г. завершилось образование Социал-демократической партии Австрии.

In Western Europe, the main bourgeois parties were conservatives and liberals . In France, they corresponded to the Republicans and monarchists, in England - the Tories and the Whigs. A feature of the formation of political parties in the United States was the formation of two mass parties, the Republican and Democratic . With the development of the foundations of bourgeois democracy in the advanced countries, the assertion of a multi-party system was a natural phenomenon.

Вторая научно- техническая революция. Последняя треть XIX в, в передовых странах Европы, Америки и Азии отмечается завершением развития капитализма в его классической форме и переходом в монополистический этап развития. Свершается вторая научно-техническая революция, в основе которой лежит изменение энергетической базы. Осуществляется электрификация промышленности, транспорта и быта. Основой процесса электрификации послужило изобретение немецким электротехником В.Сименсом (1816-1892) динамо-машины, электрической железной дороги, американским инженером Т. Эдисоном (1847-1931) генератора, трансформатора и другой электроаппаратуры. Важное значение во второй промышленной революции имело изобретение двигателя внутреннего сгорания немецкими учеными Р. Дизелем (1858-1913) и Н. Отто (1832-1891).

Важным было также существенное изменение в организации производства. Американский инженер Ф.У. Тейлор (1856-1915) создал систему научной организации труда на конвейере, в основе которой лежал принцип беспрерывного и поточного производства стандартизованных изделий, что обеспечило гигантский рост производительности труда. Произошли перемены в структуре производства: преимущественное развитие получили производство средств производства и тяжелая промышленность – металлургия, машиностроение, добывающая промышленность.

State-monopoly capitalism. Capitalism has entered a phase of state monopoly development, characterized by the formation of monopolies and increased state intervention in the economic life of the country. The development of material production has accelerated significantly. For 30 years (70-90s of the XIX century) the volume of world industrial output increased more than three times. The discovery of more efficient methods of steel production made it possible to increase its production from 1870 to 1900. 56 times. The length of railways during the same period increased almost four times and amounted to 790 thousand km.

Между тем экономическое развитие различных стран происходило неравномерно, изменилась расстановка сил. На международную арену вышли страны молодого капитализма. Темпы развития этих догоняющих стран были очень высокие. К ним принадлежали США, Германия, Россия. В последней трети XIX в. Англия теряет свое первенствующее положение, уступает это место США, Германия превращается в сильного конкурента, ее дешевые товары проникают не только в саму Англию, но и в ее колонии. Если в Англии объем промышленного производства с 1870 по 1900 гг. возрос в 1,8 раза, то в Германии в – 3,7 раза. США стали высокоразвитой индустриальной страной и заняли в 1880 г. первое место в мире по производству промышленной продукции. Страны молодого капитализма США и Германии стремились к мировому экономическому и политическому лидерству.

Agriculture

Сельское хозяйство. At the end of the XIX century. капитализм активно вторгался в сельское хозяйство. Различные социально-экономические условия обусловили и различные пути утверждения капиталистических отношений в сельскохозяйственном производстве: прусский или американский. Развитие капиталистического сельского хозяйства с сохранением крупных помещичьих латифундий есть прусский путь развития. Этот путь представлял собой медленное перерастание феодального хозяйства в капиталистическое. Он был использован в Германии, странах Центральной и Восточной Европы, в отдельных регионах России и в Японии и характеризовался сохранением элементов феодального способа производства, в частности, повинностей крестьян в пользу помещиков, высокой степени эксплуатации крестьян и батраков.

Американский путь отличался высокими темпами развития капитализма в сельском хозяйстве: внедрение машин, использование передовых способов агротехники и агрохимии, складывание фермерства, закрепление земли за непосредственным производителем-фермером, его право свободной продажи и купли земли, распространение аренды, использование наемного труда. Этот тип развития сельского хозяйства с 80-х гг. XX century. был характерен для США, Канады, Австралии, Новой Зеландии, России (районы Заволжья, Новороссийск, Северный Кавказ), Франции, а также Болгарии.

Постоянный приток дешевого зерна из США и Канады был одной из причин кризиса в сельскохозяйственном производстве Европы в последней трети XIX в. Крестьяне страдали не только от пережитков феодализма, но и от развивающихся капиталистических отношений в сельском хозяйстве. Они попадали в зависимость от банков, лишались земли, а низкая покупательная способность их сказывалась на частоте и продолжительности кризисов в промышленном производстве.

Financial oligarchy and the concentration of production. By the end of the XIX century. The dominant position of economic life was taken by joint-stock companies - a new form of capital organization. The incorporation set in motion large financial assets, including the accumulation of workers. The role of banks has changed. They were a more sustainable and adaptable organization, and manufacturing companies sought to establish strong ties with them for long-term loans. The result of competition was the formation of the largest banks that have become powerful financial centers. The emerging financial oligarchy possessed tremendous opportunities for economic and political influence in the country.

The concentration of production led to the concentration of workers in large enterprises. A high level of concentration of workers was typical for the USA, Germany, and Russia. There have also been shifts in the qualification level of the working class. The emergence of new industries, the introduction in the production of modern technology demanded further training of workers. German and English workers were distinguished by their high level of qualifications. In engineering in England, 70-75% of workers were highly and moderately skilled, and in shipbuilding, 50-60%.

Competition led to the need to develop certain agreements that guaranteed a profit. In turn, these agreements caused the emergence of monopolies — large business associations; syndicates, trusts, concerns, cartels. Monopolies arose not only in developed industrial countries, but also in countries with an average level of economic development. In Germany, cartels became a common form of monopoly, in 1896 their number reached 250. In the United States, trusts developed, allowing them to carry out a single economic and technical activity and concentrate capital investments on the crucial elements of production. In 1900 there were 185 trusts. In Russia, the first monopolies arose in the 1980s, for example, the Union of Rail Plants, etc. However, the domination of monopolies and the growth of free competition capitalism into monopoly capitalism did not eliminate the illnesses of market relations — economic crises that became more frequent and deep.

The most important sign of capitalism of the last third of the XIX century. there was also an outflow of capital. The so-called excess capital of the European powers settled in those countries where there was cheap labor and raw materials. Thus, the capital exported by the English bourgeoisie from 1875 to 1900 doubled, French 2.25 times, German 7.5 times.

Colonies and colonial politics

Colonies and colonial politics. By the end of the XIX century. the formation of a world market, in which the economic and territorial division of the world was of great importance, was completed. The monopolization of the external market involved the seizure of colonies, which were guaranteed markets for goods and a source of raw materials. The scientific, technical, and military superiority of European countries facilitated the conquest of the territory of peoples at a lower stage of development. In the 70s-80s. In the colonial policy of the capitalist countries, new forms and methods appeared. Monopoly capitalism completely subordinated the economy of dependent countries to the needs of the metropolis, hampered the development of capitalist relations, asserting the one-sided agrarian-raw specialization of the economy of the colonies. It is the 70-80-ies. they were saturated with colonial conquests accompanied by anti-colonial wars: the uprising of the Egyptian people in 1879–82, the uprising of the Mahdi in Sudan in 1881–1998, the uprising of the peoples of Indochina in the 1980s – 1990s. If in the 70s. European countries owned 20% of the African continent, then in 1900 - more than 90% of the territory. A similar picture took shape in Central and South America, Asia.

The closed borders caused great damage to China. The society was cut off from the world's scientific, technical and social achievements. Under these conditions, China became easy prey for the Western powers. In the years 1839-1844. and 1856-1860 biennium. After the so-called "opium" wars unleashed by the United States, Britain and France, a number of treaties were signed by the Chinese government, granting these countries great privileges. The Taiping Uprising further weakened China’s position. Under the hardest conditions of feudal relations in agriculture and the competitive struggle with foreign capital, the national bourgeoisie made its way. However, the Chinese bourgeoisie could not resist the Western countries. In the war of 1884-1885 with France, China was defeated. In 1894, Japan launched a war against China. Under the Treaty of Shimonoseki, China lost Taiwan, Penghledao Islands, and had to pay a large indemnity. The defeat of China led to the intensification of the colonialist policies of the imperialist states in China. By the end of the XIX century. China was a semi-colonial country.

Among the colonial empires, the largest were the countries that earlier entered upon the path of colonial conquests: England, France, Holland, Belgium, etc.

Russia as a colonial empire did not own overseas territories: it sold the USA Alaska, did not claim the lands discovered by the Russian traveler N.N. Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888). But in the last third of the XIX century. her attitude towards the West has changed. She abandoned the position of "guardian of peace and order" in Europe, but among the Slavs sought to play an active role, expanding territorial possessions in Central Asia and the Far East. Having completed the conquest of the Caucasus by the beginning of the 60s, Russia began to conquer the feudal Central Asian states. In 1865, Russian troops occupied Tashkent, in 1868 - Samarkand. In 1868, the Kokand Khanate and the Bukhara Emirate, and in 1873 the Khiva Khanate were forced to recognize their dependence on Russia. Finally, in 1885, the territory of Turkmenistan was annexed. The southern border of Russia was on the river. Kushka. With the accession of Central Asia, the development of the Amur region, the Ussuri region, Sakhalin, the development of the port of Vladivostok, Russia has become a link of the West and the East into a single civilized space.

Russia's foreign policy in the West, engaged in the implementation in the 60-70-ies. reforms, did not differ special activity. However, Foreign Minister A.M. Gorchakov (1798-1883) announced the abolition of the neutralization of the Black Sea and achieved the approval of this decision by the International London Conference in 1871.

The Union of the Three Emperors (Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany) signed in 1873 was fragile. This was revealed when deciding on the Balkans. In 1875, an uprising of the Slavs began against the Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and in 1876 in Bulgaria. Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey. European countries not only did not support the liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples, but incited the Turks to active military actions. All Russia was embraced by sympathy for the Slavs. The government of Alexander II, who sought to increase its influence in the Balkans, in 1877 declared war on Turkey.

Russian troops, having crossed the Danube, occupied Northern Bulgaria and besieged the fortress of Pleven, detachment of General I.V. Gurko (1828-1901) held the Shipka Pass . At the end of 1877, having won victories at Plevna and at Shipka, the Russian troops entered Southern Bulgaria, in January 1878 occupied Adrianopol. The military operations of the Russian army in the Transcaucasus also developed successfully.

February 19, 1878 in San Stefano (near Constantinople) a peace treaty was signed. Serbia, Romania and Montenegro gained independence, Bulgaria was declared a vassal principality. Kara, Ardahan, Bayazet and Southern Bessarabia retired to Russia.

Meanwhile, the European powers did not want to allow Russia to increase its influence in the Balkans. At the Berlin Congress (1878), the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano were revised. Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary. The territory of Bulgaria is reduced.

In 1882, a German-Austrian-Italian alliance was formed, directed against England and France. In this situation, Russia in 1893 signed a military convention with France. In Europe, two military blocs were formed - the basis of the future world war.

The approval of the capitalist system in Japan also forced her to look for new markets for products, create new enterprises and resettle excess workers. In addition, the numerous descendants of the samurai, who lost their privileges, but retained their militancy and aggressiveness, sought to conquer neighboring nations. Creating a strong army, arsenals, shipyards, the government considered its most important task. Japan began implementing aggressive foreign policy from the struggle to assert its influence in Korea, which could not withstand a strong adversary. In 1876, an agreement was signed that provided the Japanese with a number of privileges and rights. In 1885, China accepted the condition of Japan on equality of rights and interests in Korea. The victory of Japan in the war of 1894 provided it with the first colonies - Taiwan (Formosa), Panghulidao Islands. By the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Japan has become one of the most powerful imperialist powers. A powerful capitalist industry was created. The domination of monopoly capitalism in combination with semi-feudal remnants, the proximity of economically weak countries made Japan’s foreign policy aggressive.

The strengthening of Japan could not but alarm the European powers that had interests in Asia, in particular, in China. At first, supported by Germany and France, Russia demanded that Japan return Port Arthur to China (soon she herself rented it for 99 years, and in 1900 occupied the territory of Manchuria). Japan responded to this with a conclusion at the beginning of the 20th century. military alliance with England. Russia became the main opponent of Japan in its aggressive, colonial policy.

Relying on the enormous economic and military potential, the United States easily penetrated into the economies of other countries, using even military force. At the end of the XIX century. they captured the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, Hawaiian Islands, turned into a colony of Cuba. In an effort to establish an economic and to a certain extent and political priority in countries that formally remained independent, the United States resorted to unequal treaties, provided loans at high interest rates and thus sought to solve the problem of subordinating weak states to themselves.

Thus, by the end of the XIX century. the territorial division of the world was completed, the colonial system of capitalism developed. However, the rivalry and contradictions between the imperialist countries raised the question of the redistribution of the colonies. The imperialist countries tried to solve this question with the help of military force.

The militarization of Europe. The desire to redistribute the divided world and spheres of influence, as well as the internal contradictions of capitalist states led to an increase in the size of the army and the arms race. The militaristic policy was characteristic of both countries with the remnants of feudalism (Russia, Italy) and countries with intensively developing economies that consider themselves to be deprived of colonies (Germany, Japan).

In 1887, 17 European countries held 30,30100 soldiers under arms and spent 1/4 of their income on the maintenance of the army and navy. From 1869 to 1897 The strength of the armed forces of the six great European powers increased by 40%. The territorial claims of the capitalist countries towards each other played a huge role in the militarization of the economy. So, there was a dispute between Germany and France because of Alsace and Lorraine, between Russia and Germany - because of Poland, between Austria-Hungary and Russia - because of the Balkan Peninsula and Western Ukraine. At the same time, the desire to prevent the strengthening of each other increasingly aggravated the relations between European countries. England, France and Russia were alarmed by the rise of Germany, which by the end of the XIX century. in production, ranked first in Europe and second in the world. She intensively developed the military, chemical, electrical engineering and mechanical engineering industries. European states were also irritated by Russia, whose economic development rates were very high in the last third of the century.

State-legal organization of capitalist countries. In the last third of the XIX century. the process of formalizing the state-legal elements of the political system of bourgeois society, which began with the revolutions of the XVII-XVIII centuries, is basically completed The bourgeoisie, which defended free enterprise, trade, sought to expand political rights and establish the constitutional order. However, the bourgeoisie does not immediately come to power and the liberal order is established. Only after the parliamentary reform of 1832 in England, the revolutions of 1848-1849. in France, unification in the early 70s. Germany and Italy, after the reforms of the 60-70s. in Russia, the bourgeoisie gets some freedom and by the end of the 70s. in a number of countries comes to power. There are several forms of the state: a constitutional monarchy, a presidential republic and a parliamentary republic.

At the end of the XIX century. as a constitutional or parliamentary monarchy in the classical form came England. The highest legislative body was approved by the Parliament, consisting of two chambers - the House of Commons and the House of Lords. All laws before approval by the king had to be approved by both chambers. Executive power belonged to the cabinet of ministers, whose activity has increased since the middle of the nineteenth century, when the right of legislative initiative became the monopoly of the executive power. In the formation of the cabinet of ministers a big role was played by the rivalry between the two parties in the parliament - the conservatives and liberals. All the work of the government was carried out under the leadership of the Prime Minister, whose position was determined by his influence in the party.

In the second half of the XIX century. The tendency to democratize state institutions was developed: new electoral laws were adopted in 1867 and 1884, local government reforms were implemented (1888) and courts (1876). The English bourgeoisie skillfully used the struggle of the working class, advocating the democratization of public life, expansion political rights in their own interests. In the XIX century. England managed without revolutions, in an evolutionary way to turn from a country with an aristocratic monarchy into a country with full parliamentarism and civil society.

Another form of the bourgeois state in the XIX century. was the presidential republic. This form of state was most clearly manifested in the United States, which began at the end of the 18th century. The country's constitution declared the United States a federal state. The main law defined the range of issues that are within the competence of the federal authorities of the country. These included: foreign policy, armed forces, national defense, foreign trade, emigration, immigration, the federal budget, etc. The Congress, consisting of two directly elected chambers - the House of Representatives and the Senate - was declared the highest legislative body. Chambers possessed equal rights. The executive branch was headed by a president elected by two-stage elections for four years. The President had the right to initiate legislation, appoint persons to the highest positions in the state, and manage finances. The central executive bodies are the departments headed by the State Secretary. At the end of the XVIII century. It was established three departments: foreign policy, military and finance, and in the second half of the XIX century. Departments of Justice and Commerce were established. The state system of the USA did not find, on the whole, repetitions in European countries, in which statehood developed in the form of constitutional monarchies and parliamentary republics.

The parliamentary republic, the third form of state, was most fully realized in France. According to the constitution of 1875, the legislative power belonged to the parliament, consisting of two chambers of the senate and the chamber of deputies. Both chambers could unite and jointly discuss critical issues, such as electing a president or amending the constitution. In this case, both chambers became the National Assembly. Executive power belonged to the president and ministers. The president, constitutionally responsible, was given the responsibility to lead all current domestic and foreign policies. He appointed ministers and presided over meetings of the Council of Ministers. The ministers signed all acts issued by the president and were responsible for his activities. The ministers were also collectively responsible for the activities of the government. The President had the right of veto on the decisions of the Parliament, after five months from the date of the session, he could close it and, with the consent of the Senate, dissolve the Chamber of Deputies.

Thus, the formation of state-legal institutions of bourgeois society and the formation of a right-wing state belong to the second half of the nineteenth century.

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So, the main content of the historical process of the XIX century. was the victory of the capitalist system over feudalism in the advanced countries of Europe, America and the East and its development in the last third of the century into monopoly capitalism. Capitalist relations matured in the bowels of feudalism, but they were accelerated by bourgeois revolutions, which took place at the end of the XVIII-XIX centuries.

In the process of establishing capitalism, an industrial revolution took place, which was a transition from manufacture to machine production, and a second scientific and technological revolution, as a result of which an industrial civilization was formed. The main sphere of production was industry; there was a diversification of industries; mechanized agriculture; the ratio of urban and rural residents has changed in favor of the citizens; various means of communication and communication have been intensively developed.

The most important events of the history of the XIX century. independence was achieved by the colonies of Spain and Portugal in Latin America and the formation of nation states in Europe. However, colonialism not only did not end, but more. by the end of the nineteenth century the colonial system of the leading capitalist countries took shape, the territorial division of the world was completed.

The last third of the XIX century is characterized by profound qualitative changes: the giant growth of productive forces, the folding of the world market, the emergence in the economy of new forms of organization of management - monopolies, which became the source of the aggravation of contradictions between states and the outbreak of wars.

However, in the XIX century. The trend towards democratization of public life and the empowerment of citizens has become stronger.

Questions for self-test

1. 1. Назовите важнейшие признаки индустриальной цивилизации.

2. 2. Охарактеризуйте военные события в Европе 1800-1810гг. для Франции, Англии, Австрии, германских государств и России.

3. 3. Раскройте содержание понятия «промышленный переворот». Каковы основные технические, экономические и социальные результаты промышленного переворота в различных странах?

4. 4. Каковы причины революций 1848-1849 гг. в европейских странах? Расскажите о результатах этих революций.

5. 5. Объясните характер Гражданской войны в США. Каковы черты ее первого и второго этапов?

6. 6. Что такое монополистический этап в развитии капитализма? Назовите его основные признаки.

7. 7. Охарактеризуйте процесс колонизации в XIX в. Как успехи в колониальной политике были связаны с внутренним развитием западных стран?

8. 8. Describe the main forms of the state, established in the XIX century.