Chapter 2. The history of the states of the Ancient East

Chapter 2. The history of the states of the Ancient East

• Epoch of Early Antiquity

• The heyday of the ancient states

• Late Antiquity

From the end of IV millennium BC in the history of mankind begins a new stage - the first civilizations appear, sharply different from primitive societies. The most important feature of the new stage of development was the creation of states that in the IV-II millennium BC. arise over a vast area from the Mediterranean to the Pacific. The history of these states from the end of the 4th millennium BC approximately to the middle of 1 thousand AD It is called the history of the Ancient World and is divided into three stages:

- - end of IV millennium BC - end of the 2nd millennium BC (the era of early antiquity);

- - end of the 2nd millennium BC - the end of 1 thousand BC. (the heyday of the ancient states);

- - first half of 1 thousand AD (the era of late antiquity).

In the history of ancient states there are two main variants of development - the ancient Eastern and ancient (Greece, Rome), each of which has its own specifics. This chapter discusses the history of ancient Eastern states.

2.1. Epoch of Early Antiquity (end of IV - end of II millennium BC)

The chronological boundaries of the period of early Antiquity (end of IV - end of II millennium BC) practically coincide with the Bronze Age, or the Bronze Age.

The very first states on earth appear in the valleys of the major rivers of the Nile, the Tigris, the Euphrates, where it was possible to create irrigation (irrigation) systems - the basis of irrigated agriculture. In the valleys of these rivers, people are much less than in other places, depended on the natural conditions, and obtained stable harvests. The construction of irrigation complexes required the joint work of a large number of people, its precise organization and was one of the most important functions of the first states, the initial form of which was the so-called nomes.

Nome was the land of several territorial communities, the administrative, religious, cultural center of which was the city. Such city-states first appeared at the end of the 4th millennium BC. in Egypt and Southern Mesopotamia (the lower reaches of the Tigris and the Euphrates). Over time, the nomes turned into associations of a river basin or united under the rule of a stronger nome, collecting tribute from the weaker.

With the advent in the III millennium BC. major states begin to take shape a special form of socio-political system - the despotism characteristic of most ancient Eastern countries throughout their history. The ruler of a state in developed despotism possessed all power, was considered a god or, in extreme cases, a descendant of gods. The bureaucracy played an important role in governing the country, where there was a clear system of ranks, subordination. The entire laboring population of a despotic state, with the exception of taxes, was imposed on state duties, the so-called public works.

In III millennium BC the main economic unit was the large royal economy, completely dominated the natural type of production. Trade relations developed within the framework of regions isolated from each other (Egypt, Mesopotamia, India) and existed mainly in the form of exchange.

It was in the third millennium BC. slave-owning relations begin to take shape, patriarchal slavery appears , which is characteristic of the states of the Ancient East (unlike the ancient states, where classical slavery exists). Patriarchal slavery arises in conditions of the predominance of subsistence farming, when products are produced mainly for their own consumption and there is no need for such a high degree of exploitation as in commodity production. At the heart of the name of this type of slavery is the word "patriarch", i.e. head of the family. A slave becomes, as it were, a junior, not a full member of a large family, works together with his masters, who, although they consider him to be their property, still do not see him as just a living tool, recognize him some rights of the human person. With this type of slavery, not only prisoners of war — outsiders, but also people who were in debt bondage, i.e. tribesmen, which was not under classical slavery. Slaves could belong to the state, temples, individuals, but they were not the main producers of material wealth, as, for example, in ancient states. In the countries of the Ancient East, peasant communes, many of whom were more or less dependent on the state, did most of the work, especially in agriculture — the leading sector of the economy.

At this stage, in all states, although with certain features (for example, in Egypt), there were two sectors of the economy associated with land ownership — one of the most important characteristics of economic development, especially in the early stages of human history, when Agriculture. First of all, there was a communal sector of the economy where land ownership belonged to territorial communities, and movable property was the private property of the community members who worked on the allotments allocated to them. In addition, there was the public sector of the economy, which included land belonging to the state in the person of the king, as well as land granted to the temples: formally free, but deprived of civil rights, the so-called royal people worked here. Both in the state and in the community sector, slave labor was used as an auxiliary, a patriarchal type of slaveholding relations was formed.

In II millennium BC In the ancient Eastern states, there is some improvement in labor tools, progress is being made in the craft and, in part, in agriculture, production marketability is growing, usury and debt slavery are developing. State lands on various conditions are beginning to be provided to individuals. At this time, economic, political, and cultural contacts are established between different regions of the Middle East, international trade routes are established, and the number of trade settlements on the territory of other states is growing. At the same time, the struggle for dominance on trade routes is intensifying, the number of wars is growing.

End of II millennium BC became a difficult period in the history of the ancient states. At this time, the Bronze Age ends, when the tools, the weapons were made mostly of bronze, the Iron Age begins . Iron culture on the territory of ancient states bring young people. In particular, the so-called peoples of the sea, which invade the territory of Egypt, in Asia Minor, the Eastern Mediterranean, and have a strong impact on the entire Middle East.

In other regions of the ancient world at the turn of the II-I millennium BC there is also an active movement of the tribes. Indian and Persian tribes come to Iranian territory; in India, Indo-Aryan tribes are beginning to master the Ganges valley.

Let us now consider the peculiarities of the historical development of the largest civilizations of the Ancient East in the 4th-2nd millennium BC.

Egypt

Egypt. In the Nile Valley, as a result of the merger of the nomov, two kingdoms emerged - Lower and Upper Egypt. In the XXX century. BC. Pharaoh Mina, who founded the first dynasty of the Egyptian pharaohs, united them into one state. The capital of the state was the city of Memphis, located on the border of Lower and Upper Egypt.

In the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. Egypt is a large centralized state pursuing an active foreign policy. Its influence extends to the areas of the Sinai Peninsula, southern Palestine, as well as the Nile Valley south of the first threshold. At this time in Egypt, a centralized despotic monarchy took shape. Pharaoh has unlimited power, he owns the entire land fund of the country, great labor resources.

The economy is based on large imperial estates, in addition, land is allocated to temples and, probably, to some private individuals. Practically all the peasant communes turn into a dependent category of royal people - the so-called hema, among which practically all agricultural and craft specialties are represented. Hema works where the authorities direct them, getting food rations or land for it. Public works assigned mainly to hema (for example, building royal tombs-pyramids, maintaining order and creating new irrigation canals) are widely used in Egypt. An extensive bureaucracy is created for governing the country, officials play a big role in the life of society.

Approximately from the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. the power of the pharaohs begins to weaken, the position of the local nobility is strengthened, and the unified state is divided into semi-independent nomas, experiencing a period of internal fragmentation and decline. In the XXII century. BC. Pharaoh Mentuhotep I succeeds in uniting the country, rebuilding the centralized state, whose capital is Thebes.

At the end of III millennium BC in Egypt, the crisis begins of the royal households, which required large expenditures on management, the subordination of dependent workers. From about this time, the practice of providing land from the state fund to individuals for rent or in the form of payment for service has been widely spread.

At the turn of III-II thousand BC. in Egypt, the 12th dynasty, founded by Amenemhet I (the first half of the 20th century BC), comes to power. Under him and his successors, the country began to flourish. Bronze is very actively used for the manufacture of tools, the irrigation system is expanding, and agriculture is making significant progress. As before, the land is considered to be the property of Pharaoh, but the size of the royal economy is decreasing, along with it and the farms of major officials, local nobility, temples, many small and medium farms appear, which creates conditions for the further development of domestic trade and the economy as a whole.

However, in the XVIII century. BC. Egypt was captured by the nomadic Hyksos tribes who came from Asia, and internal fragmentation began again in the country.

At the beginning of the XVI century. BC. the power of the Hyksos was overthrown, the pharaoh Yahmos I (the first half of the 16th century BC) re-established a single state, and in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC Egypt is becoming the most powerful and vast kingdom of the Middle East.

In the first half of the XIV century. BC. the conquests of Egypt were temporarily suspended due to the religious reform of the pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) (first half of the 14th century BC), but already at the end of the century the war began with the Hittites 1 , as a result of which Southern Syria, Palestine and Finicia were in the sphere of influence of Egypt.

In the XII century. BC. Egypt once again found itself in a very difficult situation: it was simultaneously attacked by Libyan tribes who lived west of Egypt on the northern coast of Africa, as well as an attack by the peoples of the sea — a group of tribes that invaded at the turn of the XIII-XII centuries. BC. from the Balkan Peninsula across the Aegean Sea to Asia Minor. Until now, it has not been established exactly which peoples were included in this wave of immigrants, although there is an assumption that among them were the Achaean Greeks who defeated Troy, a city-state in the north of the Aegean coast of Asia Minor. Using iron weapons in the battles of the unknown in Egypt and other countries, the peoples of the sea were a formidable opponent.

With great difficulty, the invaders' attacks were repelled, but Egypt lost its former power, weakened central power, began a state crisis, manifested in frequent change of rulers, insurrections, strengthening of local, nomovoy, nobility, loss of foreign possessions. As a result, in the XI century. BC. a single state falls into two kingdoms - Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt. In Lower Egypt, foreigners - Libyans, who founded their dynasty, begin to play a large role. From this time on, the single independent Egyptian state ceases to exist.

Sumero-Akkadian period

Sumero-Akkadian period. Southern Mesopotamia at the end of the 4th millennium - first half of the 3rd millennium BC unlike Egypt, there was no centralized state, but there were several political centers. The most influential of them were Akkad, Lars, Nippur, Eridu, Lagash, Uruk, Umma, Ur. These and other South-Sopotamian city-states in ethnic, religious, cultural terms were a single entity - the state of Sumer. Here, as in Egypt, part of the state land is allocated to temples, public works are becoming common. However, along with state (royal) ownership of land, there is also land ownership of territorial communities where private farms develop.

Centralized states in Mesopotamia arise in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. In Sumer, Lagash and his permanent enemy, Ummah, claim the prevailing position. After an intense struggle in the XXIV century. BC. the rulers of Ummah captured Lagash, and then extended their rule to almost all of Sumer, making Uruk the capital. Soon, however, this state was seized by Sargon of Ancient (2316-2261 BC) - the king of the city of Akkad, who, having organized the first standing army in history, managed to create a large centralized state in Mesopotamia with unlimited king power. With him, the size of the tsar economy increased significantly, an irrigation system was established on a nationwide scale, and a unified system of weights and measures was introduced. Ancient Sargon became the founder of the dynasty, which ruled in Mesopotamia for about a century and a half.

At the beginning of the XXII century. BC. power over Southern Mesopotamia passed to the city of Ur, where the so-called third dynasty of Ur began to rule, whose representatives bore the title of king Sumer and Akkad. The tsarist power had a pronounced despotic character - the kings were idolized during their lives, a strong central administrative apparatus was created, in the royal and temple possessions the records of all areas of economic life were kept. In the XXI century. BC. laws were issued — the oldest known legislative acts in which, for example, the principle of monetary compensation to the injured was established.

At the end of the XXI century. BC. the third dynasty of Ur, weakened by the struggle against the nomadic conquerors - the Amorite tribes, was overthrown. The centralized state in Mesopotamia ceased to exist. There was a lot of local dynasties of Amorite origin.

Assyria and Babylon in II thousand BC in the XIX century. BC. in Mesopotamia, the two most influential states stand out among others, whose rivalry determined the development of this region for many centuries to come. In the south, the Amorites create a state with a capital in the city of Babylon. In the north, by this time, the state of Assyria was formed with the capital in the city of Ashur, a major trading and transshipment center, where the routes from Mesopotamia to Northern Syria, Asia Minor, and Egypt intersected.

In the first half of the XVIII century. BC. The Babylonian king Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC), capturing the whole of Southern Mesopotamia, subjugates Assyria. There is a powerful state with a strong royal power, the laws of the new state, known as the laws of Hammurabi , are created . They noticeably strive to alleviate the plight of certain strata of the free population, in particular, debt slavery was somewhat limited. The laws of Hammurabi reveal the social structure of the society of Babylonia - there are three main categories of the population: full free people - members of communities; legally free, but incomplete people who are not members of the community and working in the royal households; slaves. In determining the punishment often taken into account the social situation of the perpetrator - slaves were punished more severely. The laws recorded a special position of the soldiers: they were obliged to go on the march at the first request of the king, for service they received land plots inherited from the state and were not alienable even for debts.

Hammurabi's reign is the time of the highest heyday of Babylonia in the second millennium BC. AD At the beginning of the XVI century. BC. Babylon was defeated by the Hittites, and at the end of the century it was captured by the Kassites, the mountain tribes who lived east of Babylon, and founded their dynasty.

At this time, Assyria was dependent on the state of Mitanni 1, and only in the XIV century. BC. achieved independence. Since the second half of the XIII century. BC. begins strengthening Assyria. At the end of the XII century. BC. under Tiglatpalasar I (1115-1077 BC), Assyria reaches its prime. Successful campaigns against the mountain tribes of the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates are being made, and some trading cities of Phenicia are subject to tribute.

The peoples of the sea did not reach Assyria and Babylon, but displaced from the regions to the west of the Euphrates, the semi-nomadic Aramean tribes , which in the middle of the XI century. BC. rushed to Mesopotamia. Assyria and Babylon, united, were forced to fight them and temporarily were weakened.

The first civilizations in India and China . In III millennium BC in the Indus Valley, the Harappan civilization emerges , also related to the type of river valleys civilization, as well as the Egyptian and Sumerian. Large irrigation systems were created here and the main part of the population was engaged in irrigation farming. The centers of this civilization were the large cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, which actively traded with Mesopotamia. This civilization existed for a relatively short time, it died at the turn of the XIX-XVIII centuries. BC. The reasons for this are still unknown, although various assumptions have been made: not favorable weather conditions, epidemics, invasions of nomadic tribes, etc.

At the turn of III-II thousand BC. one more is added to the already existing ancient civilizations - the Chinese one, however, its development takes a very long time in isolation from the rest. As elsewhere, the first form of statehood in China was noma. They appear in the basin of the Yellow River, their population is mainly engaged in agriculture. However, unlike the ancient Egyptian, Lower Mesopotamian, ancient Indian civilizations, the ancient Chinese did not belong to the civilizations of the irrigation type. Here farming was based on flood and atmospheric irrigation.

In the XVIII century. BC. на территории Китая среди множества городов-государств выделяется город Шан, возглавивший довольно крупное объединение номов. Правитель Шана (более позднее название этого государства – Инь) носил титул ван, власть его была ограничена советом знати и народным собранием.

В конце II тыс. до н.э. государство Шан перестало существовать – оно было захвачено племенами чжоусцев, живших до этого в бассейне реки Вэй.