14.3. Russia in the second half of the XIX century.

Preparing peasant reform. The modernization of the socio-economic and political life of the country was prepared by the previous development of Russia. However, there were opponents of reform - a significant part of the nobility and the bureaucracy. During the crisis of the feudal-serf system and the growth of peasants' speeches, Emperor Alexander II (1818-1881), who understood the need for transformation, in a speech at the reception of the deputation of Moscow nobles said: “It’s better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for cancel below. A radical restructuring of public life, the "era of great reforms."

In early 1857, the Secret Committee on the Peasant Issue arose, which, having worked for about a year, was transformed into the Main Committee on the Peasant Affair. In 1858-1859 about 50 provincial committees were drafted, developing projects for the liberation of the peasants. To summarize the projects of the provincial committees, in the beginning of 1859, Drafting Committees were formed. The Main Committee on Peasant Affairs, then the State Council, on the basis of the materials of the Editorial Committees, developed a concept for the abolition of serfdom. The plan for the liberation of the peasants was to make as little as possible the concessions on the part of the landowners to the liberated peasants.

Abolition of serfdom. On February 19, 1861, the serfdom was abolished by the Manifesto of Alexander II. The liberation of the peasants was a response to the historical challenge of capitalist Western Europe, which by this time had significantly overtaken Russia. According to the Regulations, on February 19, 1861, privately-owned peasants became personally free. They received the right to dispose of their property, engage in trade, business, transfer to other classes.

The regulations of February 19 obliged landowners to give land to the peasants, and the peasants to accept this land. The peasants were given field land according to regional norms, not for free, but for duties and ransom. The amount of the redemption was not determined by the market value of the land, but by the sum of capitalized tax (6%). The state, which acted as an intermediary between the landowner and the peasant, paid the landowners in the form of a so-called redemption loan (80% of the land given to the peasant), which the peasant then had to repay in installments and named interest. For 44 years, the peasants were forced to give the state about 1.5 billion rubles. instead of 500 million rubles. The peasants did not have the money to pay the landowner immediately to the landowner. The state undertook to immediately pay the landowners a redemption sum in cash or six percent bonds. In an effort to give the land within the norms established by the Regulations on February 19, the landowners cut off 1/5 of the land from the former peasant land. The plots of land taken away from the peasants began to be called segments, which could have been leased to the same peasants.

The peasants received the land not in their personal property, but on the community, which was legally the owner of the land. This meant that the traditional way of life of the village remained intact. The state, landlords were interested in this, for the mutual responsibility was preserved, the community was responsible for collecting taxes.

In addition to privately owned peasants, other categories of peasantry were freed from serfdom. The specific peasants, who received their personal freedom as early as 1858, were transferred to the ransom while preserving the existing land plots (an average of 4.8 tithes). Decrees of November 18 and November 24, 1866 were secured to state peasants by existing plots, and they received the indefinite right of their voluntary redemption. Yard peasants received personal freedom, but remained still feudal dependence on their masters for two years from the date of promulgation of the Regulations on February 19, 1861. Serf workers of patrimonial enterprises remained dependent on the owners until the ransom. Yard peasants and workers of patrimonial enterprises secured for themselves only those lands that had before the abolition of serfdom. However, the overwhelming majority of yard peasants and serf workers did not own land plots.

Following the central provinces, serfdom was abolished in Belorussia, Ukraine, the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia. In total, 22 million peasants were freed from serfdom. Of these, 4 million were released without land. Landlessness of the peasants facilitated the creation of a labor market in the country.

The reform required high financial costs. In addition, public investment in the economy has increased. In 1860, the State Bank of Russia was opened, which alone could issue paper money and deal with the issue. The main source of state funds was per capita tax from the peasants, regardless of their income. In 1863, the poll tax from the burghers was replaced by real estate tax.

The reform of 1861 became the most important milestone in the history of the country, it cleared the way for the intensive development of capitalism, creating a labor market. However, the reform was half-hearted. The peasants, having gained freedom, remained the estate inferior. Peasant land shortages (on average, privately owned peasants received 3.3 acres of land per capita with 67 tithes required) served to aggravate the contradictions between peasants and landowners. Moreover, new contradictions have appeared - between peasants and capitalists, which in the future should have led to a revolutionary explosion. The peasant ideal of justice and truth did not coincide with the actual reform carried out. After 1861 the struggle of the peasants for the land did not stop. In the Penza province, the unrest of the peasants was brutally suppressed by the troops.

In order to strengthen public finances in 1862 under the project of V.A. Tatarinov (1816-1871) was a budget reform, which regulated the budgeting and expenditure of public funds. In Russia, for the first time began to publish the state budget.

19th century reforms

Land reform. After the abolition of serfdom, other reforms were required. The Zemsky Reform of 1864 introduced new institutions in the central gubernias and counties - zemstvos and self-government bodies. Zemstvos did not interfere in state issues, their activity was limited to economic, educational functions. Although zemstvos were called all-class and were elected, but the elections were not universal. Members of the zemstvos most became noblemen. Zemstvos were under the control of the governor and the police. The governor had the authority to suspend the implementation of the decisions of zemstvos.

Judicial reform. In 1864, judicial reform began (new courts initially began to operate only in the St. Petersburg and Moscow provinces. In other regions, new courts were established gradually, over a long time). The independence of the court from the administration was proclaimed: a judge appointed by the government could be dismissed only by a court decision. The equal responsibility of all classes before the law was introduced. The limited judicial reform was manifested in the fact that the prosecution of a government official was carried out not by a court decision, but by a decision of his superiors. The publicity of the court was announced, i.e. the public and the press could be present at the court sessions. Introduced competition prosecutor and a lawyer (attorney). Although the impudence of the court was proclaimed, for the peasants the volost court remained, for the clergy - the consistory, for the consideration of commercial cases and the affairs of merchants - the commercial court. There is also a military court. Political cases were removed from the district courts and were considered by the special attendees, without a jury. The highest court was the Senate.

Judicial reform was the most consistent, it contributed to the formation of ideas about human rights in society and the rule of law.

City reform. In 1870, the city government was reorganized along the lines of the zemstvo institutions. The reform abolished the old Catherine’s urban duma and introduced the impository council, elected for four years. To govern the city, the city council elected the city government (the executive body) and the city head. The elective bodies were responsible for the issues of city improvement, public health and education. Like the local government institutions, the city council could not interfere in public affairs.

Military reform. Russia's defeat in the Crimean War clearly showed that the army needs a radical reorganization. The tense international situation, the rapid growth of militarism, military equipment, the increase in the number of armies in other states, new methods of warfare and, of course, the tasks of the country's foreign policy forced the government of Alexander II in 1862-1874. implement reforms in the military sphere. A major statesman, Minister of War D.A. Milyutin (1816-1912).

The country introduced universal military service for males who have reached 21 years of age, reduced terms of service for those who had an education. The service life in the infantry was set at six years with a further transfer to the reserve for 9 years; in the Navy, the service life was 7 years and three years in reserve. Military reform made it possible to significantly increase the size of the army in the event of war, to improve the training of soldiers and the training of officers. The army began to be equipped with new types of military equipment, a steam fleet was created.

Education reform. Education reform was quite radical for the second half of the nineteenth century. In 1863, a new university charter was introduced, according to which the rector, professors and associate professors were elected for vacant positions by the university council. This proclaimed the autonomy of universities, which have become less dependent on the Ministry of Public Education. However, the teachers elected by the board were still approved by the ministry. Another event in the educational system was the introduction in 1864 of the principles of the all-class school, the creation of state, rural and parochial schools. These three types of schools represented a system of primary, three-year education.

Secondary schools were seven-year gymnasiums: classical, in which the focus was on the teaching of ancient languages, and the real - the teaching of mathematics and science. Those who graduated from the classical gymnasium had the right to enter the university without exams, and the real - to technical universities. Established the continuity of secondary and higher education. There were higher female courses.

Reforms in education contributed to the fact that Russian university science and education in the second half of the nineteenth century. rose to the level of European countries.

The value of reform. The reforms of the 60-70s, despite their limitations, were of great importance in the fate of Russia and signified the country's advancement along the path of capitalist development, along the path of transforming feudal monarchy into bourgeois and developing democracy. Reforms were a step from a landlord state to a legal one. The alienation from power for a long time became characteristic only of radical youth and revolutionary democrats. The reforms showed that positive changes in society can be achieved not by revolution, but by transformations from above, by peaceful means. The process of peaceful renewal began in Russia, but it was soon interrupted. March 1, 1881, Alexander II, Tsar Liberator ^1, was killed by members of the “Narodnaya Volya”, who set the goal of changing the political system by way of regicide.

Transition to reaction. With the accession to the throne of Alexander III (1845-1894), an end was put to liberal transformations. The essence of his government’s policy was a departure from the democratic elements born in Russian society, and the counter-reforms that lasted from 1881 to 1892. This was a triumph of conservative politics, a backward movement. Autocracy saw its social support only in the nobility. In the Noble Bank, founded in 1885, interest on loans was lower than in the Peasant Bank.

On March 8, the Council of Ministers rejected the constitution drafted by Count M.T. Loris-Melikov (1825-1888) and approved by Alexander II. On April 29, 1881, the Manifesto "On the Inviolability of the Autocracy" was adopted, proclaiming the belief in "the power and truth of autocratic power."

In 1889, the post of Zemsky chiefs was established who controlled the activities of peasant communal self-government. The world court was abolished.

In 1892, changes were made to the city government, the right to choose was lost by those who did not have immovable property. The governor was entitled to direct the actions of city self-government bodies. The control of judicial authorities and internal affairs for legal proceedings was also established, publicity was curtailed. Since 1881, the absolute power of censorship has been restored, the liberal editions of Golos, Domestic Notes, and many works of Russian and European writers are banned.

In education, the reactionary policy of tsarism was manifested in the actual elimination of university autonomy, the restriction of access to the gymnasium for children of lower strata of the population (Circular of the Minister of Public Education "On Cooking Children"). Women's higher education has significantly narrowed: admission to the Higher Women's Courses has been discontinued (only the Bestuzhev courses with a limited contingent have survived).

In the national policy, the state conducted a violent Russification and religious oppression. The result of the reforms was a significant weakening of the liberal movement, a widening of the gap between the immobile political system and the dynamically developing socio-economic relations in the country. Autocracy managed to isolate the people from the liberals. And if the peasantry in the 60-70s. as a whole did not follow the revolutionary populists, then at the beginning of the twentieth century. the peasantry estranged from the liberals followed the revolutionaries.

Post-reform development of Russia

Post-reform development of Russia. Years after the great reforms of the 60-70s. This is a period of rapid economic development, accompanied by changes in the social structure of society. By the end of the XIX century. Russia has become the largest country in the world in terms of its territory and population, with 126 million people living in it.

Its economic development was marked by a number of features, the most important of which were:

a) uneven distribution of productive forces. Of great importance were new industrial areas — the South, the Transcaucasus, and the Baltic. Ural began to lag behind in its development. The remnants of serfdom led to a decline in its role in Russian industry. The regions of Siberia and Central Asia remained untapped;

b) a high degree of concentration of production and workers. So, in 1890, half of all workers in Russia were employed in enterprises with 500 or more workers. The level of concentration of the working class by the end of the XIX century. Russia ranked first among the capitalist countries;

c) along with large-scale industry, peasant trades still played a significant role in economic life;

d) penetration into the Russian economy of foreign capital, which attracted cheap labor, raw materials, as well as broad opportunities for the development of entrepreneurial activity. If by the 60th. foreign capital in the Russian industry was 9.7 million rubles., then by the end of the 70s. - 97.7 million rubles.

The main branch of the economy remained agriculture, where the remnants of serfdom remained. Some landowners adapted their farms to the capitalist market and increased the marketability of grain. But most of the landowners could not translate the economy into a capitalist manner and went bankrupt. If by 1880, 15% of landlords' lands were laid, then in 1895 - already 40%.

For the 60-90-ies. the average grain yield increased from 29 to 39 pounds from one tithe, and the average annual grain harvest from 1.9 to 3.3 billion pounds. However, agriculture continued to grow extensively. As noted D.F. Samarin, in Europe, 500 people feed on one kilometer of land, and only 40 in Russia.

The peasantry suffered from lack of land, especially the acute land hunger was in the European part of Russia. If in 1860 there were 4.8 acres of land per male soul, then in 1880 it was 3.6, and in 1900 only 2.6. The land shortage forced the peasants to rent land from the landowner for processing, use and part ¹ .

By the end of the XIX century. The agrarian question has escalated. Opportunities for the development of agriculture, provided by the reform of 1861, were exhausted. New agrarian transformations were needed, which could be carried out either by peaceful or revolutionary means.

Significant changes in the post-reform years occurred in industry. It was not only the old industries that were developing (textile, food), but new ones appeared - oil-producing, chemical, and machine-building.

In the 80-90s. the industrial revolution was completed and the machine industry replaced the manufactory.By the growth rates of production in the industries that determine the process of industrialization, by the 80s, Russia came out on top in the world, and in absolute production volumes, it was among the five largest powers in the world. From 1860 to 1895. iron smelting increased 4.5 times, coal mining - 30 times, oil - 754 times. Widely developed railway construction. By the beginning of the 60s. the length of the railways was 1.5 thousand km, and by the beginning of the XX century. - more than 50 thousand km.

But despite the rapid development of industry, the industrialization of the country was not completed, and Russia could not catch up with the advanced countries of Europe and America.

The development of capitalism in Russia, accelerated by bourgeois reforms, government intervention in economic life, an increase in its investments, could not but affect the social class structure of society. There was an increase in the number of working class: by the end of the XIX century. the industrial proletariat numbered more than 5 million people; from 1865 to 1879 the number of industrial workers increased 1.5 times, and the number of railway workers 6 times. However, by the end of the XIX century. only 40% of industrial workers were hereditary workers.

The sources of the formation of the bourgeoisie were wealthy peasants, merchants and nobles. The number of bourgeoisie by the end of the XIX century. reached 1.5 million. Although its economic power (key positions in industry, finance, penetration in agriculture) was significant, but social influence and political weight were not great enough. State support for the bourgeoisie made it conservative and loyal to the autocracy. Therefore, it began to create its own political parties only at the beginning of the 20th century.

The political rule of the nobility shrank during the reign of Nicholas I, and in the second half of the XIX century. it lost its dominant position in society: political power passed to the bureaucracy, and ideological to the intelligentsia. Over 1.8 million nobles still retained economic power. Despite the reduction of noble land ownership, the value of noble lands in European Russia by 60% exceeded the value of the total share capital.

In general, the ruling circles did not want to see a contradiction between the fixed political structure and the socio-economic development of the country.

Ministers N.Kh. Bunge (1823-1895) and S.Yu. Witte (1849–1915), who advocated liberal economic trends and pursued protectionist policies, carried out a number of reforms aimed at stabilizing finances, improving the tax system, industrializing the country and turning it into a first-class power. In 1894, a monopoly on vodka was introduced, which made it possible to significantly increase government revenues: if in the early 1980s. state revenues amounted to 730 million rubles. then in 1897 - about 1.5 billion rubles. The country's gold reserves increased threefold and reached 649 million rubles. A monetary reform was carried out (1897), according to which a gold ruble was introduced into circulation instead of a paper ruble and a free exchange of the credit ruble for gold was established.

Экономическая политика С.Ю. Витте была связана с привлечением иностранного капитала в промышленность, банки и государственные займы. В Россию было привлечено 3 млрд. золотых рублей иностранных займов. Повышение пошлины на ввозимые иностранные товары, косвенных налогов на керосин, спички и другие предметы и введение промыслового налога в промышленности также способствовали увеличению государственных доходов. Накопленные средства использовались для интенсивного развития российской промышленности.

Вместе с тем жизненный уровень широких народных масс был низким. Рабочее законодательство по сути отсутствовало. К концу XIX в. России не была осуществлена демократизация общественной жизни. Промышленный переворот не коснулся сельского хозяйства, половина крестьян обрабатывала землю сохой, хотя Россия и являлась важнейшим поставщиком зерна в Европу.

Антирабочая политика государства способствовала тому, что рабочее движение возглавили революционеры, а крестьянство, страдающее от малоземелья, оказалось восприимчивым к социалистической пропаганде. Противоречия между самодержавным строем и преобразующейся экономикой в России к концу XIX в. крайне обострилось.

Общественно-политическое движение

Общественно-политическое движение. Неудачи в реформировании России Александром I, поражение декабристов обусловили нарастание консервативных настроений в обществе. В 30-х гг. министр народного просвещения С.С. Уваров (1786-1855) выдвинул теорию «официальной народности», суть которой состояла в утверждении, что русский народ по своей природе религиозен, предан царю и не противится крепостному праву. Эта теория была положена в основу государственного обучения в учебных заведениях. Однако в «жестокий век» николаевской реакции идейно-политическая борьба не только не замерла, она стала шире и разнообразнее, в ней возникли течения, различающиеся в вопросах об общем о особенном в историческом процессе и судьбе России.

С резкой критикой правительственной идеологии выступил П.Я. Чаадаев (1794-1856) в своем «Философическом письме» (1836), в котором затронул проблемы прошлого, настоящего и будущего России. Автор был объявлен сумасшедшим. Изучение членами кружка Н.В. Станкевича (1813-1840) трудов Гегеля, Канта, Шеллинга и других немецких философов было признано инакомыслием.

Особое понимание путей развития России было свойственно представителям двух идеологических течений западникам и славянофилам. Славянофилами были: А.С. Хомяков (1808-1856), К.С. Аксаков (1817-1860), П.В. Киреевский (1808-1856), И.В. Киреевский (1806-1856), Ю.Ф. Самарин (1819-1876) и др. Доказывая своеобразие российского исторического развития, они отрицали капитализм, а также возможность и необходимость революции в России. Славянофилы утверждали, что петровские реформы нанесли серьезнейший ущерб русским традициям и увели страну с верного пути. Процветание России они видели в православии, крестьянской общине, соборности и самодержавии, ограниченном Земским собором.

The opponents of the Slavophiles were the Westerners: A.I. Herzen (1812-1870), T.N. Granovsky (1813-1855), B.N. Chicherin (1828-1904), K.D. Kavelin (1818-1885), V.P. Botkin (1811/12-1869), M.N. Katkov (1818-1887), who sharply criticized the communal beginnings of Russian reality. They argued the European version of Russia's development, believing that the masses assimilating the achievements of European culture and technical progress would ensure the well-being of the people.

In the late 40s. XIX century.the nature of ideological searches changes and the views of the revolutionary democrats VG Belinsky (1811-1848), A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev (1813-1877) and others. A.I. Herzen in his work reflected the specifics of the political situation in the country and the range of problems that occupied the minds of the thinking part of Russian society. The terrible, supreme despotism and inquisitorial administration, according to Herzen, forced him to leave his homeland. The polar star almanac published by him abroad and the Kolokol magazine played a huge role in the enlightenment of Russia. Herzen and Belinsky believed that socialism built in the future would become a society without the exploitation of man by man.

За республиканскую форму правления и освобождение крестьян от крепостного права выступали члены кружка М.В.Петрашевского (1821-1866).

В начале царствования Александра II представители различных, идейных течений были едины в понимании необходимости социально-экономических преобразований. Но ограниченность аграрной реформы обусловила подъем оппозиционного самодержавию движения и его раскол на либеральное и революционное направление. Революционное направление складывалось из двух течений: народничества и марксизма. Идеология народничества, важнейшее положение которой – переход России к социализму, минуя капиталистический путь развития. Ни «хождение в народ», ни террористические акты, ни убийство Александра II не привели к народной революции и разрушению самодержавного строя.

Интерес к марксизму в России возрос в 70-х гг. В 80-х гг. появились нелегальные марксистские группы и кружки. В Женеве действовала созданная Г.В. Плехановым (1856-1918) группа «Освобождение труда». В 1895 г. разрозненные социал-демократические кружки Петербурга были объединены В.И. Лениным (1870-1924) в «Союз борьбы за освобождение рабочего класса». В 1898 г. состоялся I съезд социал-демократических организаций России, заявивший о создании политической партии рабочего класса, однако устав и программа не были приняты.

* * *

So the first quarter of the XIX century. was marked by liberal reforms of public administration and the development of a program for the transformation of Russia M.M. Speransky. It was a period of confrontation between bourgeois France and feudal-serf Russia.

The heroic struggle of the Russian people in the Patriotic War of 1812 resolved this confrontation in favor of Russia and affirmed its priority in Europe.

Thirty years old Nicholas was the time of the establishment of autocratic power, defeated in the Crimean War.

In the second half of the XIX century. autocracy was forced to engage in self-improvement and spend a whole happy liberal reforms to ensure the rapid development of capitalism.

However, the incompleteness of the reforms contributed to the formation of the illegal opposition and its social base. The resolution of acute contradictions in society was postponed for subsequent years.

Questions for self-test

1. 1. Tell us about the reforms carried out in the first decade of the reign of Alexander I.

2. 2. What is the historical significance of the victory of the Russian people over Napoleonic France?

3. 3. Expand the main provisions of the “Russian Truth” by P. Pestel and the “Constitution” by N. Muravyov.

4. 4. Describe the features of the industrial revolution in Russia.

5. 5. What reforms were carried out in the 60–70s? Uncover their character and historical significance.

6. 6. What are the counter-reforms of Alexander III.

7. 7. How did capitalism develop in the post-reform years?

8. 8. Describe the socio-political movement in Russia in the middle of the second half of the nineteenth century.