11.3. Enlightened absolutism in Russia

In Russia, as in other European countries, the transitional era from feudalism to capitalism gave rise to the ideology of the Enlightenment. The 60s belong to the period of enlightened absolutism. - the reign of Empress Catherine II.

Enlightened absolutism in Russia is characterized by such measures in which the nobles and the state itself were interested, but which at the same time contributed to the development of the new capitalist structure. An important feature of the policy of enlightened absolutism, which the researchers point out, was the monarchs' desire to ease the severity of social contradictions in their countries by improving the political superstructure.

Having come to the throne, Catherine undertook several trips around the country in the first years of her reign: in 1763, she traveled to Rostov and Yaroslavl, in 1764 visited the Baltic provinces, in 1765 traveled along the Ladoga Canal, in 1767 along the Volga River by boat. from Tver to Simbirsk, and then returned by land to Moscow. The Empress was greeted everywhere with indescribable delight. In Kazan, they were ready, as VO writes. Klyuchevsky, lay yourself instead of a carpet under the Empress's feet. Run-away travel observations could inspire Catherine many government considerations. She met on the way the city, "the situation is beautiful, and the structure of the vile." The people of their culture was below the surrounding nature. “Here I am in Asia,” wrote Ekaterina Voltara from Kazan. This city is particularly struck by its diversity of population. "This is a special kingdom," she wrote, "so many different objects worthy of attention, and you can gather ideas for 10 years here." While the accumulated observations had not yet formed into a coherent transformational plan, Catherine, in the words of Klyuchevsky, "hurried to mend the most drastic gaps of management."

Based on the ideas of European enlighteners, Catherine had a certain idea of ​​what should be done for the prosperity of the state. "I wish, I want only good for the country where God has led me," she wrote before she came to power, "the glory of the country is my own glory."

Commission Order on the drafting of a new Code. Catherine II decided to give Russia a legislative code based on the principles of the new philosophy and science, opened by the Enlightenment. To this end, in 1767, Catherine II began to draw up her famous instruction, the “Commission Order on the drafting of a new Ulozheniy”. In drawing it up, she, by her own admission, “robbed” Montesquieu, who developed the idea of ​​separation of powers in the state, and his other followers. Her policy of enlightened absolutism presupposed the rule of the “sage on the throne”. She was well educated, knew the writings of the Enlightenment - Voltaire, Diderot, and others, was in correspondence with them.

She managed to mislead them, they considered her the benefactor of the whole nation, the patron of the arts. Voltaire called her "the northern star", and in a letter to a Russian correspondent he wrote: "I worship only three subjects: freedom, tolerance, and your empress." The recollection of Catherine II’s attitude towards the views of the enlighteners is reminded of her meetings with Diderot: “I talked with him for a long time, but more out of curiosity than with use. If I believed him, I would have to transform my entire empire, destroy legislation, government, politics, finances and replace them with false dreams. ” “Mandate” is a compilation composed of several works of the educational direction of that period. The main ones are Montesquieu’s books On the Spirit of Laws and the work of Italian criminalist Beccaria (1738-1794) On Crimes and Punishments.

The book of Montesquieu Catherine called the prayer book of sovereigns who have common sense. "Mandate" consisted of 20 chapters, to which were then added two more. The chapters are divided into 655 articles, of which 294 were borrowed from Montesquieu. Catherine widely used the treatise Beccaria, directed against the remnants of the medieval criminal trial with its torture, which carried out a new look at the sanity of crimes and the expediency of punishments. "Mandate" was imbued with a humane and liberal spirit. He argued the need for autocracy in Russia in view of the vastness of the space of the Empire and the diversity of its parts. The goal of autocratic rule is not “to take away their natural liberty from people, but to direct their actions to obtain the greatest from all good”.

In the Empress’s “Mandate,” quotations from the writings of the enlighteners were used to substantiate serfdom and strong autocratic power, although certain concessions were made to developing bourgeois relations. The features of enlightened absolutism are seen in the creation of courts separated from administrative institutions, the implementation of electoral principles in the substitution of certain posts, and in the stateless training proclaimed in 1786 when organizing provincial and district schools. Giving a rating of "The Mandate" of Catherine II, V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote: “Free from political convictions, it replaced them with tactical methods of politics. Not letting go of any thread of autocracy, it allowed the indirect and even direct participation of society in management ... The autocratic power, in her thoughts, received a new look, became something of a personal-constitutional absolutism. In a society that has lost its sense of law, and such an accident, as the successful personality of a monarch, could have passed for a legal guarantee. ” (Course of Russian history. Part V, p. 7).

"The laid commission". The largest event of enlightened absolutism was the convening in 1767 of the Commission on the composition of the draft of the new code (the laid-out commission). According to Klyuchevsky’s calculations, the social composition of the Commission was as follows: out of 564 deputies, 5 percent came from government institutions, from cities — 39, nobility — 30, rural inhabitants — 14 percent. Cossacks, non-residents and other classes accounted for only 12 percent.

The commission laid out for the beginning of the meeting in the Faceted Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin in the summer of 1767. The work of this Commission did not affect the subsequent Russian reality, but there was plenty of noise and loud phraseology around this rally of the empress. At one of the meetings, Catherine was given the title of "the great, wise mother of the Fatherland." Catherine did not accept and did not reject the title, although the note to Marshal A.I. Bibikova (1729-1774) expressed her dissatisfaction: “I ordered them to make the Russian empire laws, and they make apologies to my qualities”. According to Klyuchevsky, the commission worked for a year and a half, held 203 meetings, limited itself to discussing the peasant issue and legislation, but because of the outbreak of the war with Turkey, it was dissolved and no longer gathered at full strength.

The new code of laws under Catherine was not drawn up. The work of the Commission turned out to be fruitless, extensive clerical work retained only the significance of the monument of social and historical thought of Russia in the era of Catherine II.

Russian enlighteners. Ideas French educators were divided not only by the empress, but also by some Russian grandees. Count Andrei Shuvalov was known for his friendship with Voltaire and was considered among the enlighteners "northern patron of the arts". At the expense of Prince D.A. Golitsyn (1734-1803) in the Hague published the work of Helvetius (1715-1771), forbidden in France, “About Man”. Catherine's favorite, Count Grigory Orlov (1734-1783) and Count Kirill Razumovsky (1728-1803), competed with each other in providing favorable conditions for creativity to be persecuted at home, in France, by J.J. Rousseau. At the court of Catherine, they discussed the works of famous French enlighteners, translated them into Russian.

Peasant War of 1773-1775 Yemelyan Pugachev (1740 or 1742-1775) and the Great French Bourgeois Revolution of 1789 put an end to the advances of Catherine II and her circle with the ideals of the Enlightenment. The storming of the Bastille, the alarming information about the burning of the noble castles reminded the Russian feudal lords of the peasant war in Russia.

Having received the news of the execution of Louis XVI, the court declared a six-day mourning in Petersburg. Russia became a haven for French exiles. Any information about the events in France was subjected to the strictest censorship; diplomatic relations with France were severed.

At the same time, the internal reaction increased. The first victim was a writer, thinker A.N. Radishchev (1749-1802) - author of “Travels from St. Petersburg to Moscow”. In 1790 A.N. Radishchev was sentenced to death, replaced in 1792 by reference to Tobolsk for a term of 10 years. Following Radishchev, the publisher N.I. was subjected to repression . Novikov (1744-1818), who in 1792 was arrested and imprisoned for 15 years in the Shlisselburg fortress. The fate of Radishchev and Novikov was also shared by some other active representatives of the Enlightenment.

These facts marked the open end of the policy of enlightened absolutism in Russia.

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In the history of Russia, one can hardly find time equal in meaning to the transformations of the first quarter of the 18th century. Historians associate the activity of Peter I with a new period of Russian history. Transformations have left a deep imprint primarily because they embraced the most diverse spheres of the country's life.

As a result of the transformation, Russia has become a strong European state. In many ways, technical and economic backwardness was overcome, elements of the capitalist structure were born.

The policy of Peter I, aimed at the development of Russian industry, was continued by Elizaveta Petrovna and Catherine II. In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia's productive vultures have made a big step forward, not only in quantitative terms, but also in qualitative parameters. An all-Russian market is being formed, the use of civilian labor is expanding, a banking system is being created, a market infrastructure is developing - the process of folding capitalist production relations has become irreversible in Russia. Despite this dominant position in the country occupied the nobility, who had a monopoly on the land and on peasant labor.

The policy of enlightened absolutism in Russia is connected with Empress Catherine II. The century was undermining the idea of ​​the extra-class value of a person whose bearers were prominent figures of the Russian Enlightenment. The hostility towards the French Revolution, the persecution of progressive people inside the country testified to the end of this policy.

Questions for self-test

1. 1. Assess the activities of Peter I. What transformations of Peter I contributed to the economic, military, and cultural development of Russia, which played a negative role?

2. 2. What changes have occurred in the development and distribution of productive forces, industry structure, organization of production in Russia?

3. 3. What factors in the development of the productive forces of the country testified to the beginning of the process of decomposition of the feudal-serf system and the emergence of capitalist relations?

4. 4. Tell us about the features of enlightened absolutism in Russia.

5. 5. What was the purpose of Catherine II’s famous “Mandate”? What sources did she use to compile it?

6. 6. Why was the policy of enlightened absolutism curtailed in Russia?