3.2. Ancient Rome (8th century BC - 5th century BC)

Royal period. Italy is located on the Apennine Peninsula in the center of the Mediterranean Sea. Its coastline is much less developed than in Greece, and there is no sea dotted with islands near the mainland, so navigation has not received such a development here as in Greece. But Italy is more extensive and convenient for farming and animal husbandry.

The ancient Greeks, surprised by the rich vegetation of the peninsula and the abundance of livestock, called the southern part of the peninsula "country of calves" - Italy. In the future, this name has spread throughout the peninsula.

Linguistic, archaeological, anthropological and historical studies indicate that the Italians are related to the Hellenes, moreover, they prove that they originate from the same tribe, which later split into two main branches.

At the beginning of 1 thousand BC. Italy was gradually settled by the Etruscans in the north, the Greeks in the south, and the Phoenicians on the island of Sicily.

Frequent wars occurred between these peoples, which resulted in the emergence of many disadvantaged people from the destroyed cities. These refugees settled near the fortresses and submitted to local authorities. So in 753 BC arose Rome (lat. Roma), formerly a small fortress, whose inhabitants, as the descendants of its founding fathers, were called patricians. The immigrants and their descendants became known as plebeians, They paid tax, served in the army, but did not have land.

Land and agriculture in Rome and Italy from the very beginning played a decisive role. The Italians settled on the peninsula already farmers, and the main link of the community were the owners of land. When, over time, the direct descendants of the first inhabitants of Rome lost most of the land, which originally belonged to them, the Roman king Servius Tullius (578-534 BC), by his reform, divided the inhabitants of Rome into sedentary owners and proletarians (from the Latin proles - the offspring ), assigning all community services to the first and giving them full rights. Proletarians were so poor that they could not serve in the army and their only property was to reproduce offspring.

The history of Rome shows that the strength of the state and individuals in - their possession of the land. This is what explains the greatness and strength of Rome in the first place. Initially, the land was in communal ownership of the clans, private property was in cattle, but by the 6th century AD BC. land becomes private property. The Romans grew spelled (a kind of wheat) and were engaged in winemaking. In the VIII-VII centuries. BC. crafts already existed in Rome: thus, during the time of King Numa Pompilius (c. 715 - c. 672 BC), eight workshops of craftsmen existed in Rome. Their position was honorable, but began to deteriorate with the reform of the penultimate Roman king, Servius Tullius, according to which only the farmers had full rights.

Trade in the first period of Roman history was limited to the borders of Italy and was carried out at fairs, the main of which was the fair at the mountain of Sorakt. The main subjects of exchange since ancient times were bulls, sheep, copper. The excavations found by archaeologists indicate that merchants from other countries participated in these fairs. From the very beginning, Rome held an exceptional position, because it was the center of an active agricultural community and a lively trading center.

The state system of the first period of Roman history reproduced family relations: at the head of the state stood a life-elected king, endowed with all the signs of a father in a family. The only limitation of his power was that he could only apply the laws, and not change them.

Citizens in ancient Rome were equal among themselves, there were no class differences, non-citizens (foreigners, slaves) were powerless.

To obtain the consent of the people to the war and change the law, the king convened a national assembly of all citizens at least twice a year. The ancestors of 300 clans, who laid the foundation of the Roman state (300 people) and were therefore called "fathers", constituted the senate.

Period of the Republic

Period of the Republic. In 509 BC the Romans expelled the last king, Tarquinius (534 / 533-510 / 509 BC), because he did not consult with the Senate, unjustly sentenced citizens to the death penalty with confiscation of property. The people solemnly committed themselves never to allow the restoration of royal power. Formed a Republic that existed for five centuries. Power in the Republic was given to two consuls for a period of one year, one of whom should be a plebeian. Each of them had full power, but only those orders that came from both consuls were obligatory. The plebs' rights were defended by tribunes of the people.

From 509 to 265 BC. all the events of Roman history fit into two processes: the struggle of the plebeians with the patricians for civil rights and the struggle of the Romans for the subordination of all Italy. 20 years after the expulsion of the kings in Rome, an uprising of plebeians against patricians broke out, the result of which was a reform of state administration: in addition to two patrician consuls, it was decided to elect two plebeian tribunes annually with the right of veto to the consuls and the senate concerning plebs. As a result of the struggle of the patricians and plebeians in 471 BC. public laws appeared , under which the plebeians now received the right to occupy consular and other posts and receive land in the communal field. It was forbidden to convert Roman citizens into slavery for debt.

The basis of economic life was still farming. Along with small-scale property, large farms appeared with the use of slave labor. Wheat becomes the main agricultural crop instead of spelled. Copper first appears, and then a full-fledged silver coin. The development of crafts in Rome was slow, as slaves were engaged in small crafts in each house, and besides, the state, which was oriented towards land owners, did not contribute to their development.

By IV-III centuries. BC. This includes numerous measures to maintain cleanliness in the city, safety, orders for buildings, bathhouses, and taverns. Under Appius Claudius, who held the posts of censor, consul, and who became in 292 BC. dictator, the senate retreated from the former system of extreme frugality in spending: expensive but useful buildings, excellent roads to different parts of Italy, including the famous Appian Way, were created; excellent running water in Rome; vast areas created new places to settle, etc. Appiah is considered the founder of jurisprudence.

During this period, no less than 12 nations were at war in the Apennine Peninsula. For more than 200 years, Rome waged wars with them and gradually over the course of the 5th-3rd centuries BC. established dominance over most of Italy. Together with the spread to the whole peninsula, the Roman authorities extended their customs, language, and all the Italic tribes gradually romanized.

Punic wars. Carthage, founded by the Phoenicians on the northern coast of Africa, was located on the way from the rich continent of Asia to the Mediterranean, which allowed its residents to develop trade in a size never seen before: they were intermediaries for the exchange of all goods from Spain to India.

By the end of the III century BC. possessions of Rome approached the island of Sicily, but here the aspirations of the Romans clashed with Carthage, which had turned into a strong maritime power of the Mediterranean by this time. This is the name of the three wars of Rome against the Carthaginians (Punians).

From 264 to 241 The 1st Punic War took place, ending in the defeat of the Punians (Carthaginians) who were forced to surrender Sicily and Sardinia and pay a contribution to Rome. But the Romans were dissatisfied with the outcome of the war, as their goal was the richest city at that time, Carthage.

During the 2nd Punic War (218-201 BC), Carthage lost all of its non-African possessions and the role of a great power. The shortest was the 3rd Punic War (148-146 BC), during which Carthage after a long siege was taken, plundered, burned and, by order of the Roman Senate, wiped off the face of the earth. During the same years, the Romans defeated Macedonia, defeated the troops of the Syrian king, and later subjugated Greece and the Western part of Asia Minor. So, by the end of the II. BC. Rome became the center of the Mediterranean.

During this period, the economy developed enormously in Rome: there were many banks that performed all sorts of intermediary functions in various monetary calculations; foreign trade developed; Gradually, the entire population embraced the desire to acquire wealth, the duty of honor and conscience was considered to carefully conduct their money affairs and increase, and not to live the inheritance received. As a result of the Punic Wars and other military campaigns, the Roman community significantly expanded its land holdings, resulting in new forms of economic activity. Many of the conquered and confiscated lands were infertile, and, both for the government and for the colonists and peasants, could have become too expensive. For this reason, the ruling class has opened up private enterprise: those who wish were given the opportunity to develop vacant land with the condition to annually add to the treasury tithe from sowing, one-fifth from plantings and collection from the number of livestock driven to pastures. This process resulted in such phenomena as the growth of large land tenure, the increase in the number of landless who made up the army of farm laborers, and the emergence of such a large social and economic factor as slavery: imported slaves as a result of conquest.

The main type of slaveholding economy became villas (with an area of ​​25-100 hectares), where several dozen slaves worked. Their economy was diversified, intense. The villas were located near the cities where some of their crops were sold. The villa, as a form of organization of the economy, had advantages over small-scale peasant farms — it used labor cooperation, labor was better organized, various tools were used, and advanced agronomic methods were used.

In the II. BC. Latifundia arose in Rome — large, mainly cattle-breeding, farms of Roman nobility based on slave labor. The Roman nobiles became the owners of the new state land, and the second property category was admitted to the use of the state land - horsemen, people of purely urban and commercial occupations, crowded in bidding for rent. Salt mines, forests, tar enterprises were rented out. At the same time, there was a process of buying up small holdings and turning them into large farms with a holistic economic organization. Agronomical treatises appear, the Romans translate the Carthaginian authors using their agricultural lessons. Since that time, the essay of the Roman political figure Caton (II century BC) “On agriculture”, which is a well-known historian of the XX century, becomes famous. R. Wipper estimated as follows: "It reflects this new for Italy thirst for land, not peasant, not personally labor, but landowner, entrepreneurial, reflects the view of the capitalist, who is already building a difficult budget on land management."

Although by the end of II. BC. Rome and became a great world power, it tended to decline, because with the development of large land tenure, which used colossally developed slave labor, the factor on which the state had long relied was destroyed: the economy of small landowners. In all branches of activity, the labor of slaves was used, who were engaged in handicrafts, managed large enterprises of their masters, taught children, and managed banking operations. Their number was huge, and the situation is extremely difficult. From the beginning of the II. BC. slavery rebellions continually occur in Italy: 134–132 BC. - The uprising in Sicily, was executed more than 20,000 people, 73-71 years. BC. - The uprising led by Spartacus, more than 6,000 people were executed.

However, the threat to the state was not in the riots of slaves, but in the fall of the class of small proprietors, which developed in parallel with the strengthening of slavery. The Roman government has always supported petty land tenure by distributing newly acquired land to the poor, however, after the Punic Wars, this process slowed down and the number of full-fledged Roman citizens decreased.

The best of the Romans saw the danger of such a trend and thought about the need for reform. Such people were the brothers Tiberius and Guy Gracchus. Elected in 133 BC in the tribunes of the people, Tiberius proposed a law according to which all state-owned land occupied by private individuals should be taken to the treasury and distributed to citizens who did not have land in 7.5 plots of land, for the use of which the owners had to pay a moderate rent. In five years after the introduction of this law, 75,000 people received new land and were added to the lists of citizens. Tiberius Grakh was assassinated, and Brother Guy continued his work. Given the shortage of land in Italy, he proposed to withdraw the colonies of citizens across the sea, facilitated military service, introduced mitigation into criminal law, weakened the dominant nobility. By limiting the power of the senate, he concentrated a lot of power in his hands: distribution of land, bread, observation of the jury’s choice, consuls, direction of communications and public buildings.

Period Iperia

Period Iperia. In the middle of I century. BC. Republican Rome faces collapse: it is shaken by rebellions in the conquered provinces, heavy wars in the East, civil wars in Rome itself.

In 82 BC commander Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC) established his sole authority and for the first time for an indefinite term declared himself a dictator. His dictatorship was aimed at overcoming the state crisis in Rome. But in 79 BC he acknowledged that he had not reached his goal and resigned.

The official founder of the Roman Empire is considered to be Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC), elected in 59 BC. Consul in Rome. Realizing the need for serious reforms to turn the dictatorship into an empire, Caesar began to pay the soldiers of his army twice as much salary as other military leaders; the allies of Rome, he generously handed out the rights of Roman citizenship. Being declared in 45 BC life dictator, Caesar passed the laws that changed the political system of the Roman state. The National Assembly lost its significance, the Senate was increased to 900 people and replenished with supporters of Caesar. The Senate granted Caesar the title of emperor with the right to transfer it to his descendants. He began to mint a gold coin with his image, to appear in signs of royal dignity. Caesar's desire for royal power restored many senators against him, they organized a conspiracy led by Mark Brutus (85-42 BC) and Guy Cassius (? - 42 BC). In 44 BC Caesar was killed, but the restoration of the aristocratic republic, on which the conspirators hoped, did not happen.

In 43 BC Marc Anthony (83-30 BC), Octavian (63 BC - 14 AD), Lepidus (circa 89-13 BC) entered into an alliance, finally defeated the Republicans and divided in 42 BC between a Roman state. However, in striving for personal power, Anthony and Octavian in 31 g. Began a new civil war, ending in victory for Octavian, who received the title of Augustus from the Senate and proclaimed from 27 BC. the emperor. Octavian was entitled to the tribune, who *** all the troops, and even the high priest.

August reigned for a long time (27 BC - 14 AD) and brought the reform of Caesar to the end. He left a huge Roman Empire, the possessions of which stretched to Armenia and Mesopotamia, to the Sahara and the shores of the Red Sea.

After the fall of the Republic in Rome, large land holdings of the Roman emperors were formed (saltuses}, which were located in Italy, in the provinces, mainly in Africa. Saltus or a group of them were headed by a special official - the procurator.

Under Emperor Trajan (53-117, reigned since 98), wars of aggression were renewed, and the Roman Empire reached its maximum limits. But later the conquests ceased, the influx of new slaves into the empire sharply decreased. In the III. in the Roman Empire, the economic crisis begins, the decline of agriculture, crafts, trade, a return to natural forms of farming. A new form of land relations is emerging - the colonate. Large landowners leased plots of land, livestock, tools necessary for the work. Small tenants, gradually due to debts depending on landowners, were called colonies. They paid groceries for landlords and taxes to the state. Colons gradually turned into serfs, not having the right to leave their village, and urban artisans lost the right to change their profession and place of residence. Huge spending on the maintenance of the army and the luxurious court of the emperors, on the spectacle, handouts free poor poor Roman rulers were forced to increase taxes from the population of the provinces. In different parts of the empire, uprisings of the population broke out and riots of soldiers dissatisfied with heavy service.

In the last period of the Roman Empire, two processes were developing in parallel: the process of the spread of Christianity in the empire and the process of regular invasions of European barbarians.

Christianity originated in the Roman province of Judea in the 1st century. AD on the basis of religious and social teachings about the spiritual salvation of people through faith in the atoning power of the savior, the son of God, who preached such sects of Judaism as Zealots and Essenes. The idea of ​​Christianity is based on the atoning mission of Jesus Christ, his execution, resurrection, and the second coming to people, the final judgment, retribution for sins, the establishment of the eternal kingdom of heaven.

In conditions of economical and national oppression, ideological confusion in the Roman Empire in the I-III centuries. AD this teaching was accepted by the large masses of the population of a huge empire, as it proclaimed the equality of all people before God, destroyed ethnic and social barriers in society. All this contributed to the spread of Christianity in many countries, despite persecution by the authorities.

After a long and unsuccessful struggle with Christianity, emperors allowed to practice faith in Jesus Christ (Constantine's Edict of Milan, 313). Over time, the rulers themselves were baptized (Constantine, 330) and declared Christianity the only state religion (Theodosius I, 381). They participated in church councils and tried to bring the church under state control.

Meanwhile, European barbarians regularly invaded the Empire. In 378, the Goths defeated the Roman army, in 410 they led the Visigoths king Aparich (about 370-410) robbed Rome, during the previous 800 years not accessible to the conquerors. Goths burned many palaces and temples, melted wonderful works of ancient masters into metal. In 445, vandals from North Africa even more brutally than the Goths plundered Rome. Their leader Genzerich ordered his soldiers to destroy what they could not carry away. In 476, the commander-barbarian Odoacer (c. 431-493) took the dignity of power from the last Roman emperor and sent them to Constantinople, the former capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, later called Byzantium (in 395, the emperor Theodosius divided the Roman Empire between his sons before his death to the West with Rome and the East with Constantinople). However, he declared that there should be one emperor on earth, like one sun in heaven. He himself began to rule Italy, adopting the ancient title of "Rex", abandoning claims to all other possessions of the Empire.

Thus put an end to the once powerful Roman Empire. The story of the new “barbarian Europe” began.

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Ancient states - Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome - represent the region in which classical slavery developed, where slaves were the main productive force. Slave labor was used in all leading sectors of the economy.

Despite the uniformity of slavery, the structure of the economy of Greece and Rome was distinguished by its originality, due to natural and geographical features. If craft and trade played a leading role in the economy of Ancient Greece, then agriculture and construction played a leading role in Ancient Rome. Moreover, unlike Greece in Rome, when at the turn of our era it became an empire, large slaveholdings won.

The pace of economic development of the ancient states far exceeded the dynamics of the ancient eastern slave states. Throughout its history, the ancient states have also demonstrated superiority in the state and social system, having experienced its various forms during its heyday, ensuring the democratization of the political system and the highest heyday of culture, creating its inaccessible models to date.

Questions for self-test

1. 1. What is the place and role of ancient states in world history?

2. 2. Tell us about the economic role of slavery.

3. 3. Describe the ancient civilizations as the germs of all subsequent economic formations.

4. 4. Describe the forms of government of ancient Greece and ancient Rome.

5. 5. Name the most important socio-political and socio-economic reforms of ancient states, describe their importance.