6.2. Formation of civilization in the Russian lands (XI - XV centuries.)

Feudal fragmentation. So, Russia is majestic and extensive yet remained unstable state formation. State unity was largely maintained by the military power of the Kiev princes. The period of feudal fragmentation in Russia is an inevitable stage in the evolution of feudal society, the economic basis of which is subsistence farming with its isolation and isolation. The strengthening of the feudal aristocracy in Novgorod, Rostov, Ryazan and other lands led to the struggle for independence. Economic development, urban growth were also accompanied by the desire for independence. Already in the middle of the XI century. in ancient Russia, signs of a fragmentation of the state began to become more and more apparent, and by the end of the century its disintegration began. Vladimir 1 Red Sun distributed to 12 his sons allotments in different lands. Other princes did the same. After his death, it was time for strife, conflict, rivalry.

As a result of this tough struggle in 1019, Yaroslav (c. 978-1054), later called the Wise , became the great Kiev prince . Under him, Kievan Rus reached the peak of its power, was safe from the Pechenigian raids. During his reign in Kiev, a grandiose 13-domed St. Sophia Cathedral was erected, which had a pronounced step-pyramidal composition, which differed from the Byzantine architectural tradition and founded the Pechersky Monastery. Literacy, correspondence and translation of books from Greek into Russian were widely conducted; a book depository was arranged in the Sofia Cathedral.

The name “Yaroslav” is associated with the compilation of “Russian Truth”. Under him, for the first time in 1051, the Kiev metropolitan was not the Byzantine, but the Russian statesman and writer Hilarion.

The broad international recognition of the Russian state during the period of Yaroslav the Wise and his descendants is also evidenced by the extensive dynastic ties between Kiev and European ruling houses. Thus, Yaroslav himself was married to a Swedish princess, daughter Anna was married to the French king, daughter Elizabeth to the Hungarian king, and the third daughter Anastasia was the wife of the Norwegian king. His son Vsevolod became the son-in-law of the Byzantine emperor Konstantin Monomakh. Therefore, the grandson Vladimir gets the nickname Monomah. Sister Yaroslav married the Polish king, granddaughter - the German emperor. Before his death, Yaroslav, urging his sons to live peacefully, divides the state between five sons in the hope that now not only one person will rule the state, but the entire princely family. But strife did not subside, each of the sons sought to take possession of the principality of Kiev, there was a lot of sovereign lands - principalities. Their number grew: by the middle of the XII century. - 15, to the beginning of the XIII century. - already about 50.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, local princes showed great concern for the welfare, cultural and economic development of their lands: new cities appeared, craft and trade grew noticeably, patrimonial lands left by inheritance, areas of cultivated land expanded, methods of processing improved. So, if in the XI century. written sources number 60 new cities, then in the XII century. - over 130.

Yet such rapid growth lasted until normal, natural development affected the factor of external conquest. During the period of feudal fragmentation, the overall military potential of the country was extremely weak. Significantly decreased the intensity of international trade. But the main thing - the constant strife and the growing fragmentation of possessions made it easier for foreigners to conquer Russian lands.

The union of Yaroslavichi, the sons of Yaroslav the Wise, disintegrates during princely civil strife and popular unrest. At the initiative of Prince Vladimir Monomakh (1053-1125) at the Lyubech congress at the end of the XI century. (1097) even the complete autonomy of the local feudal centers was recognized: "... each contains his own patrimony". Since then, the Russian land has ceased to be the cumulative possession of a whole clan. Possessions of each patrimony became hereditary property.

Vladimir Monomakh tried to preserve and strengthen the international authority of Russia. Under him, the “Charter of Vladimir Monomakh” was published, which improved the legal status of the merchants, ordered the charging of interest by usurers, and regulated entry into slavery and the institute of procurement. During his reign, the initial Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” was compiled. The crown of the Russian tsars was introduced in Russia - Monomakh's hat. The son of Vladimir Monomakh - Mstislav (1076-1132) for some time was able to maintain the unity of the Russian lands. But then the country finally broke up into a half dozen of the principalities of the states. In the second half of the XII century. Russia is turning into a kind of federation of principalities headed by the Grand Duke of Kiev, whose power was weakening ever more. The period of feudal fragmentation lasted from the 30s. XII century. until the end of the XV century.

The main princely lands. The most significant on the territory of Kievan Rus, not inferior to the large European states in the occupied territory, were in the south-west - Galitsko-Volynskaya, in the north-west - Novgorod, in the northeast - Vladimir-Suzdal lands.

The rise of the Galician principality history connects with the name of Yaroslav Osmomysl, so named for the knowledge of eight foreign languages. Volyn Prince Roman Mstislavovich (? - 1205) carried out the unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities (1199), seized Kiev, forming one of the largest states in Europe. His son Daniel (1201-1264), after a long and bitter struggle for the throne, unites southwestern Russia and Kiev land, becoming one of the most powerful Russian princes.

The Galicia-Volyn principality, distinguished by very favorable climatic conditions, wealth, crowded and beautiful cities (Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Kholm, Berestye (Brest), Lviv, Peremyshl, etc.), crossed by the most important trade routes of European importance, turned out to be very tempting for invaders. First, the Mongol-Tatars, then the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Volyn) and Poland (Galich) deprived these lands of independence.

The largest center of Russian Slavs in the northwest was Novgorod. Developing relatively independently, it was notable for its proximity to the European type of development. The fact that he was not subjected to strong Tatar-Mongolian plundering, although he paid tribute, had a very favorable effect on the fate of Novgorod. In the struggle for the independence of Novgorod, Prince Alexander Nevsky (1220-1263), who not only repulsed the onslaught of the German-Swedish aggression (the Battle of Neva, the Battle of the Ice - 40s of the XIII century), became especially famous, but showed a flexible policy, making concessions to the Golden Horde and organizing resistance to the offensive of Catholicism from the West.

The development of the Novgorod Republic (the end of the 11th-15th centuries) was carried out, perhaps, in the same way as the cities-republics of the Hanseatic League, as well as the cities-republics of Italy (Venice, Genoa, Florence). She possessed a huge land fund and the richest crafts. Advantageous position at the crossroads of trade routes Western Europe - Russia-East-Byzantium. Remoteness from the raids of nomads, etc. All this allowed the strong, rich, corporately united boyars to avoid the monarchical form of government, to establish a feudal boyar republic. The actual power belonged to the boyars, the highest clergy and eminent merchants. All the highest executive bodies — posadniki (head of government), tysyatskie (head of the city militia and trade judge), bishop (head of the church, manager of the treasury, controlled external relations of Veliky Novgorod) and others. Replenished from the boyars nobility. However, top officials were elected. So, for example, in the second half of the XII century. Novgorod, like nobody in the Russian lands, began to elect a spiritual shepherd - Vladyka (Novgorod archbishop), which brings the republic closer to the Protestant tradition. On this land, perhaps, earlier than in Europe, reformatory tendencies towards the church appeared, anticipating European reformation, and even atheistic sentiments. The position of the prince was also peculiar. He did not have full state power, did not inherit the Novgorod land, and was invited only to perform representational and military functions (professional warrior, head of the squad). Any attempt by the prince to interfere in the internal affairs inevitably ended in his expulsion: for 200 years with a little, the princes had been 58

And yet, the rights of the highest authority belonged to the national assembly — the veche, which had wide powers: reviewing the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy, inviting the prince and concluding an agreement with him, electing trade policy that is so important for Novgorod, posadnik, trade court, etc.

In the northeast of Russia, a large and independent Vladimir-Suzdal (or Rostov-Suzdal, as it was called first) principality was formed. Remoteness from steppe nomads in the south, landscape obstacles for the easy penetration of the Varangians from the north, possession of the upper reaches of the water arteries (Volga, Oka), through which the rich Novgorod merchant caravans passed, significant immigration from the south, developed since the XI century. a network of cities (Rostov, Suzdal, Murom, Ryazan, Yaroslavl, etc.), etc., made this principality rich and powerful. In addition, the principality was headed by very energetic and ambitious princes.

The formation and development of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality is associated with the names of Vladimir Monomakh and his son Yuri Dolgoruky (1090-1157), distinguished by the desire to expand his territory, subordinate Kiev. In addition to Moscow, built by him on the site of the boyar manor and first mentioned in the chronicles in 1147, Yuryev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Pereyaslavl, Kostroma, etc. are created or strengthened with him. In turn, the share of Vladimir Monomakh 's grandson, Andrei Bo- Golyubsky (1111-1174), so called for considerable support of the church in the struggle for power, fell the unification of the Russian lands and the transfer of the center of all Russian political life from the rich boyar Rostov, first to a small town, and then with unprecedented pomp Vladimir-on-Klyazma .

Politician Andrei, who died as a result of the boyar conspiracy, was continued by his brother Vsevolod the Big Nest, nicknamed so much for his large family. During his time there was a significant strengthening of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, which became the strongest in Russia and one of the largest feudal states in Europe, the nucleus of the future Moscow state, which reunited Russia in the XV century. Vsevolod influenced the policies of Novgorod, received a rich lot in the Kiev region. Almost completely controlled the Ryazan principality, etc. Having completed the fight against the boyars, he finally established a monarchy in the principality. By this time, the nobility became the support of the princely power. He was made up of servicemen, military men, courtyards, servants who depended on the prince and received land from him for temporary possession (estate), monetary payment in kind or the right to collect princely income. The economic rise of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality continued for some time with the sons of Vsevolod. However, this process was interrupted in 1238 by the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars.

It should be noted that Europe also did not avoid the collapse of the early medieval states, fragmentation and local wars. Then, the process of formation of secular-type national states (see Chapter 5), existing to this day, was developed. Perhaps, Ancient Russia, having passed the decay line, could have come to a similar result. And here a national state could emerge, a single people could form. But that did not happen. And although, as in Europe, in the history of Russia, the turning point was the thirteenth century, but for Europe it was the time of the beginning of active advancement along the path of a progressive type of development, and for our state the fate turned out to be different.

The fight against the Mongol-Tatar invaders. Political fragmentation, constant princely feuds facilitated the implementation of large-scale plans of the Mongol-Tatars, begun by the leader of the Mongol tribes Prince Temuchin (Temudzhin), who received the name of Genghis Khan (the Great Khan) - the lord of the world (c. 1155-1227). The Mongols attacked North China, conquered Siberia, invaded Khorezm, Northern Iran and other lands and began to move towards the Russian lands. Genghis Khan showed himself not only a skillful and cruel commander, but also an outstanding ruler.

The Mongols were nomadic, had an unprecedented cavalry army with excellent organization and iron discipline, with a single command. Well-armed with bows and sharp sabers, clad in helmets and shells made of leather seals, easily moving on fast horses, they were almost invulnerable to arrows. Even the highest for that time Chinese military equipment was used.

Already in the first major collision in the Azov steppes on the river. Kalka (1223) the combined Russian forces and the Polovtsi could not resist the well-organized and welded together Mongols, where every dozen were bound by mutual responsibility (all were punished for the guilt of one). In addition, serious differences emerged between the Russian princes; there was no support from the powerful princes of Kiev and Vladimir. For the first time, Russia suffered such heavy damage - nine-tenths of the combined forces were killed, but the Tatar-Mongols were weakened, they could not move forward and turned back.

In 1237, returning from the steppes under the leadership of the grandson of Genghis Khan Batu (1208-1255), the conquerors crossed the Volga and invaded Russia. Ryazan, Vladimir, Suzdal, Moscow were ransacked and burned, southern Russian lands were ruined (Chernihiv, Kiev, Galitsko-Volyn, etc.) During February 1238, 14 Russian cities were destroyed. In 1241, the Mongols invaded Europe, devastating Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, the Balkans, and reached the borders of Italy and Germany. But, having lost significant forces in the Russian land, not daring to leave the Russians in the rear, Baty returned to the Volga region, where he formed the mighty Golden Horde (1242).

Defenders of the Russian fatherland provided unprecedented, heroic, selfless and stubborn resistance. However, scattered forces, the lack of a unified command, insufficient strengthening of cities, the militia, which constitutes the bulk of the Russian army and consists of urban and rural workers, and in numbers, and in armament, and fighting qualities and skills are inferior to militant nomads, all this caused a terrible disaster for Russia. The damage caused by the Golden Horde was colossal: dozens of destroyed cities, many people killed or taken into slavery, a significant output of the Horde (an annual tribute to the Horde), which was collected by military units led by Baskaks according to a special census, interrupted ties with Europe, and so on. d. Nonetheless, the scattered, deserted, decayed Russian land not only retained its statehood, but, as A.S. Pushkin, "... torn apart and bloodless, stopped the Mongol-Tatar invasion on the edge of Europe," saved European civilization.

Difficult tests could not affect the future of Russia. Perhaps it was the 250-year-old Mongol-Tatar yoke that determined the "Asian principle", which then turned into a heavy serfdom and fierce autocracy for Russia. In fact, the Mongol-Tatars broke the Russian historical fate and stimulated another.