9 Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries.

• Russia in the XVI at.

• XVII century. in the history of Russia

9.1. Russia in the XVI century

Completion of the merger. In the XVI century. under Vasily III (1505-1533), the unification of the Russian principalities-lands around Moscow was completed.

In 1510 Pskov was annexed to the Russian state, in 1514 Smolensk, captured earlier by Lithuanian feudal lords, was returned, in 1521 the Ryazan principality was annexed, which in fact was long ago subordinated to Moscow. Thus, all the principalities and lands of Russia were united into one state, which included, in addition to the Russians, other nations: Udmurts, Mordovians, Karelians, Komi, etc. In terms of population, the Russian centralized state was multinational.

The international importance of the Russian state has grown, its defense capability has become stronger. Moscow during the reign of Ivan III and Vasily III received numerous ambassadors from foreign states and sovereigns - the German emperor, the Hungarian king, the king of Denmark, the Venetian doge, the Turkish sultan, etc.

Board of Elena Glinsky . After the death of Basil III, the great throne was occupied by Ivan IV (1530-1584). But since he was only three years old, his mother, Grand Duchess Elena Glinskaya, ruled the state . It did not last long, but it carried out certain reforms aimed at centralizing the state, including banning the purchase of land from service people, increasing control over the growth of monastic land ownership and reducing the tax and judicial immunity of the church. The monetary reform of 1535 was of great importance. Its necessity was ripe due to the appearance of counterfeit, defective money in circulation. The silver ruble was recognized as a monetary unit, chasing was unified, and a single monetary system was established for all cities. The mints are left only in Moscow and Novgorod. Lipheads, elected from among the service people, were introduced at the local level. Their assistants from among the black-peasant peasants were chosen by the kisses. The functions of the labial heads included the right of independent legal proceedings in robberies.

The beginning of the reign of Ivan IV. After the death of Elena Glinsky in 1538, her eight-year-old son Ivan IV was left orphaned. During this period, the struggle for power resumed, in which the princes Belsky, Shuisky, Glinsky participated; she was distinguished by cruelty and violence, which, of course, influenced the formation of the character of the future ruler of the Russian state, called the Terrible among the people . He passed his first death sentence in his life in 1543, when he was only 13 years old. In 1547, Ivan IV assumed the title of tsar, and was the first of the Russian rulers to be crowned king in the Assumption Cathedral. From this year on, he publicly declared himself king of all Russia.

In the struggle for the throne, the exorbitant growth of extortion from the urban population, as well as the increasing exploitation of the peasants, the social situation in the country became aggravated: the peasants fled from feudal lords, plowed their lands without authorization, destroyed documents on landowners' rights to peasants.

In 1547, an uprising of the townspeople broke out in Moscow, the reason for which was the extensive fire that destroyed the property of the townspeople. Victims and indignant people demanded that the young tsar extradite especially hated boyars. The Moscow insurgency was not the only one - unrest also took place in Pskov, Opochka, Ustyug. The speeches of the people were suppressed. However, Ivan IV was forced to make concessions - some of the boyars were removed from the government, the feeding system was gradually eliminated.

In 1547, under Ivan the Terrible, a new government was created - the Elected is pleased. The structure of the Rada included representatives of various strata of the ruling class — princes D. Kurlyatev, A. Kurbsky (1528–1583), M. Vorotinsky, N. Odoyevsky, V. Serebryany, A. Gorbaty-Shuysky, boyars Sheremetev. An important role was played in the Rada by Metropolitan Macarius and the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin Sylvester (? -Ok. 1566), deacon of the Ambassadorial Order I. Viskovaty. Headed a number of sleeping king Tsar AF Adashev (? -1561). He was a serving man of a not too noble family. Contemporaries considered him knowledgeable and intelligent. Thus, the composition of the Rada testified to the compromise nature of domestic policy pursued by Ivan IV at this stage.

The elected parliament was not an official state institution, but it ruled on behalf of the king for 13 years and was actually a government.

The members of the Elected Rada set their task to streamline the laws and governance of the country, to find an expansion of the sources of revenues to the treasury, taking into account the interests of both the nobility and the boyars.

Reforms of the 50s

The reforms of the 50s. When developing reforms, the demands of petitions addressed to the tsar and written in 1549 by a nobleman and writer I.S. Peresvetov.

Reforms included the creation of a new system of central government - orders, in the middle of the XVI century. in Russia there were about 20 orders, each of which was in charge of certain affairs. Thus, the Ambassadorial Order regulated relations with foreign countries, the Pushkarsky Order by artillery, and the Rogue by regulating feudal property, the Grand Order by state finances, Yamskaya by postal service and postal stations (pits). Pomestny - state lands, distributed to nobles. At the head of the order was a noble boyar, a major government official, clerks and clerks obeyed him. Orders were in charge of collecting taxes and courts. There were orders in charge of certain territories - the Order of the Siberian Palace, the Order of the Kazan Palace.

The composition of the Boyar Duma was expanded by Ivan IV three times.

To solve the most important state affairs, Ivan IV began to convene a special meeting - the Zemsky Sobor. It included representatives of the boyars, the nobility, the clergy, the merchants, the townspeople. This testified to the creation of estate-representative institutions and the transformation of Russia into estate-representative monarchy. The Zemsky Sobor discussed issues of foreign policy and finance, as well as the election of new kings. The first Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1549, it decided to draw up a new Code of Laws and formulated a reform program of the 16th century. The Zemsky Sobor of 1550 adopted a new Law Code, which confirmed the right of the peasants to move only on St. George’s Day and increased the payment for the “elderly”.

Zemstvo councils were advisory in nature and did not restrict the power of the king, but, of course, thanks to them, the political activities of the supreme power were carried out locally. However, Zemstvo councils in Russia were held only out of necessity, i.e. irregularly.

In the XV-XVI centuries. in Russia, local governments were also created - the system of governorship. The governors were sent by the sovereign and the Boyar Duma to cities and lands. The functions of the governors included the collection of taxes from the population, control over the use of the decrees of the Grand Duke, the implementation of the court and reprisals. They did not receive any salary for the performance of these duties, but were kept at the expense of extortion from the local population. This order of payment for their services was called feeding. Since the governors were left to themselves, they abused their powers, from which the population suffered.

Reforms of the 50s XVI century. touched and local government - the feeding system was canceled. Lip reform on the ground established special posts of labial chiefs (district, district), elected from the nobility. The functions of the labial institutions were transferred to the conduct of cases of robbers and thieves seized from the court of governors. Thus, labial elders gained greater power over the local population, which also testified to the strengthening of the central government. This reform provided an inflow of additional funds to the treasury (taxes, previously appropriated by feedmen), strengthened the position of the nobility in the administrative apparatus on the ground, helped to eliminate remnants of feudal fragmentation in the local government apparatus. On the other hand, it strengthened the resistance of the boyars.

In 1550 a military reform was carried out, aimed at strengthening the country's armed forces. A new standing army was created, armed with firearms (pishchali) and knives (swords and swords). This army began to be called Streltsy. Personal protection of the king provided a special detachment of 3 thousand people. At the end of the XVI century. the number of Strelets troops reached 25 thousand people. The archery service was held in Moscow and in almost all major cities. Constant Strelets army became a powerful military force of the Moscow state. The Service Code (issued in 1556) was drafted, in accordance with which two forms of military service were established: home (ie, by origin) and instrument (ie, recruitment).

Noblemen and boyar children served in the fatherland. The service began at the age of 15, lasted a lifetime, and was inherited. Such servicemen constituted the main part of the armed forces — the cavalry militia of the feudal lords; they were provided with salaries and land.

Service on the device were archers.

Joined the army and the Cossacks, who lived on the Don. In 1571 the first Charter was drafted on the organization of the guard and stanitsa service at the borders.

By the end of the XVI century. Russian troops exceeded 100 thousand people. In addition, there were 2500 mercenary Poles, Germans and other foreigners.

Agrarian coup. Oprichnina

Agrarian coup. Oprichnina. Of exceptional importance was the agrarian reform of Ivan the Terrible. By this time, a large feudal patrimony with a developed immunity, which asserted the independence of its owner from the central government, became increasingly interfering with the social and economic development of the Russian centralized state. Boyars nobility competed with the princes, and the princes in the fight against the boyars began to rely on the landowners nobles.

The state in the conditions of lack of funds for the creation of a mercenary army, wanting to subjugate the boyars-patrimony and appanage princes, followed the path of creating a state local system. The final blow to the feudal fiefdom Ivan the Terrible struck in 1565, when he established the oprichnina, which represented a system of measures aimed at strengthening the autocracy and further enslaving the peasants. Vast territories were allocated from the state land fund, the proceeds of which were to be transferred to the sovereign's treasury. The rest of the territory was a land , remaining in the management of the old institutions. The oprichnina included lands with the most developed level of unit-princely land tenure and the most developed cities, i.e. the best half of the country. In these areas, princely and boyar fiefdoms were confiscated, their former owners were “withdrawn” to other areas, mainly marginal, where they received land based on local law. In the old areas of the land were given to the guardsmen. This reform was the agrarian coup, the essence of which was the redistribution of land from the boyars to the nobility. The result of the agrarian coup is the weakening of large feudal patrimonial land tenure and the elimination of its independence from the central government; approval of land tenure and the nobility associated with it, supporting state power. In economic terms, this gradually led to the predominance of serfdom over revision operation.

Ivan the Terrible conducted these transformations with incredible cruelty. He collapsed with the army of the guardsmen on Novgorod, as he considered the Novgorodians opponents of his power. Thousands of innocent people died, many were drowned in the r. Volkhov, the surrounding villages were looted. Upon his return from this campaign to Moscow, Ivan IV continued numerous executions of boyars and service people. In the hands of the king, the oprichnina was a powerful military-punitive organization. She very soon caused discontent and bitterness against the king, both in the feudal circles and among the people.

In the life of the country, the oprichnina ominously intertwined the old and the new.

In an effort to strengthen the central authority, liquidate the last specific holdings, Grozny created a new sovereign, the oprichnina, which led to a system of overlapping orders and thoughts and the separation of the zemshchina. Oprichnina measures aimed at strengthening the personal power of Grozny were carried out by barbaric methods. Ultimately eliminating political fragmentation, Oprichnina caused an extreme aggravation of contradictions. In addition, the oprichnaya army was unable to protect the capital from the Tatars, and it was plundered in 1571.

In 1572, Ivan the Terrible abolished the oprichnina and forbade even to mention this hateful word. The union of the oprichnich and Zemstvo territories, the oprichnich and Zemstvo troops, the service people followed, the unity of the Boyar Duma was restored. Thus ended the story of the most mysterious, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, institutions in the history of Russia.

At the beginning of the XVI century. an attempt was made to limit church land ownership, but then supporters of a rich church, the so-called "possessors" won. In 1551, the Stoglav Cathedral (its decisions were summarized in 100 chapters) won the line to limit monastic land ownership and to establish control over it by the king; monasteries pledged to participate in the collection of tax for the redemption of prisoners (polonyanichnyh money).

Under Ivan the Terrible, changes were made to the financial and tax system: a reform of the “sushnogo letter” was carried out, according to which the taxation unit common for the entire state was a large plow (a plot of land 400-600 hectares), from which it was levied conscription). The range of monetary taxes was expanded, monetary rent was expanded, financial and tax centralization was strengthened. These reforms contributed to the strengthening of the Russian centralized multinational state. This can be judged by the transfer of the right to collect trade duties to the state.

Foreign policy

Foreign policy. Ivan IV's foreign policy was carried out in three directions: in the west - the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea; in the south-east and east - the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the beginning of the development of Siberia; in the south - the protection of Russian lands from the raids of the Crimean Khanate. Tatar khans committed robber raids on Russian lands. In the territories of the Kazan and Astrakhan Khanates in captivity there were thousands of Russian people captured during raids. The local population was brutally exploited - the Chuvash, Mari, Udmurts, Mordovians, Tatars, Bashkirs. The Volga route ran through the territories of the khanates, but the Volga could not be used by the Russian people throughout its length. They attracted Russian landowners and fertile sparsely populated lands of these edges.

At first, Ivan the Terrible took diplomatic steps to subordinate the Kazan Khanate, but they did not bring good luck. In 1552, the 100-thousandth army of the Russian tsar laid siege to Kazan. It was better armed than Tatar. Artillery Ivan IV had 150 large cannons. Using the tunnel and barrels of gunpowder, the Russians blew up the walls of Kazan. Kazan Khanate recognized themselves defeated. The peoples of the Middle Volga region became part of the Russian state. In 1556, Ivan the Terrible conquered the Astrakhan Khanate. From this period, all the Volga region was the territory of Russia. The free Volga trade route significantly improved the terms of trade with the East.

In the middle of the XVI century. Bashkiria, Chuvashia, Kabarda became part of Russia. The accession of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates opened up new perspectives, and access to the basins of the great Siberian rivers became possible. Siberian Khan Ediger recognized the vassal dependence on Moscow as early as 1556, but Khan Kuchum , who replaced him (? - ca. 1598), refused to recognize the power of Moscow (oppressed local residents, killed the Russian ambassador).

The merchants of the Stroganovs, who had a letter from the tsar with the grant of lands east of the Urals, with the permission of Moscow, hired a large Cossack detachment to fight against Khan Kuchum. The leader of the detachment was the Cossack Ataman Yermak (? -1585). In 1581, the detachment of Yermak inflicted defeat on the troops of Kuchum, and a year later occupied the capital of the Siberian Khanate, Kashlyk.

Finally, Kuchum was defeated in 1598, and Western Siberia was annexed to the Russian state. In the annexed territories, all-Russian laws were established. The development of Siberia by Russian industrialists, peasants and artisans began.

Russia's foreign policy actions in the West - the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea, for the Baltic lands captured by the Livonian Order. Many Baltic lands have long belonged to Novgorod Russia. The banks of the Neva River and the Gulf of Finland were formerly part of the lands of Veliky Novgorod. In 1558, Russian troops moved to the West, the Livonian War began, which lasted until 1583. The rulers of the Livonian Order prevented relations of the Russian state with Western European countries.

The Livonian War is divided into three stages: until 1561 - Russian troops completed the rout of the Livonian Order, took Narva, Tartu (Dorpat), approached Tallinn (Revel) and Riga; until 1578 - the war with Livonia turned for Russia into a war against Poland, Lithuania, Sweden, Denmark. Military operations have become protracted. Russian troops fought with varying success, taking in the summer of 1577 a number of Baltic fortresses.

The situation was complicated by the weakening of the country's economy as a result of the devastation by the guardsmen. The attitude to the Russian troops of the local population as a result of military requisitions changed.

During this period, Prince Kurbsky, one of the most prominent Russian military leaders, who also knew the military plans of Ivan the Terrible, came to the side of the enemy. Difficult situation devastating raids on the Russian lands of the Crimean Tatars.

In 1569, the unification of Poland and Lithuania into a single state - Rzeczpospolita took place. Stefan Batory (1533-1586), elected to the throne, went on the offensive; from 1579 Russian troops fought defensive battles. In 1579 Polotsk was taken, in 1581 - Great Luke, the Poles besieged Pskov. The heroic defense of Pskov began (headed by voivode IP Shuisky}, which lasted five months. The courage of the city’s defenders prompted Stefan Batory to abandon a further siege.

Однако Ливонская война завершилась подписанием невыгодных для России Ям-Запольского (с Польшей) и Плюсского (со Швецией) перемирий. Русским пришлось отказаться от завоеванных земель и городов. Земли Прибалтики были захвачены Польшей и Швецией. Война истощила силы России. Главная задача завоевание выхода к Балтийскому морю решена не была.

Экономика России

Экономика России. К концу XVI в. территории России расширились почти вдвое по сравнению с серединой века, а население составляло до 7 млн. человек.

Главной отраслью экономики России в XVI в. оставалось сельское хозяйство. Охота и пушные промыслы оттесняются на окраины и сохраняют свое значение лишь в Сибири и на Севере. Продолжали развиваться рыболовство и пчеловодство, которое в этот период от примитивного бортничества перешло к пасечному (организованному) пчеловодству.

Земледелие развивалось экстенсивным путем – за счет освоения новых районов и усиленной вырубки леса и расчистки земель под пашни в центральных районах страны.

Основным земледельческим орудием оставалась деревянная соха; в лесных районах использовалась двузубая и трехзубая соха. В центральных районах стали обрабатывать землю сохой – косулей, являющейся орудием плужного типа.

Прогресс производительных сил сельского хозяйства в условиях неизменности орудий труда проявлялся в основном в продвижении земледелия в новые районы и в распространении трехпольной системы. В центральных районах страны в XVI в, трехполье с правильным чередованием озимых, яровых и паровых полей стало господствующим.

Для обработки земли примитивными орудиями требовался рабочий скот, трехзубую соху и соху-косулю тянули две-три лошади. Поэтому развитие пашенного земледелия сопровождалось ростом скотоводства.

Во второй половине XVI в. начался процесс колонизации окраин. Выделилось два главных ее направления; юг и юго-восток от Москвы и восток – Зауралье и Сибирь. Пустующие земли юго-востока называли диким полем; поскольку эти окраины Московского государства постоянно подвергались набегам ногайских и крымских татар, то с целью укрепления обороны были приняты меры к их заселению и освоению. Вдоль южной границы были построены укрепленные пункты и крепости – засечная черта, где расселяли людей, несущих пограничную службу, за которую им давались небольшие земельные участки. В 60-70-е годы XVI в. усилилась крестьянская колонизация южных земель. На богатые черноземные земли устремились и помещики. Правительство жаловало им в этих районах огромные поместья. Восточные земли Западной и Центральной Сибири заселяли преимущественно крестьяне.

Процесс объединения разрозненных территорий в единое государство сопровождался развитием городов, где концентрировались ремесло и торговля. Города обрастали посадами, в которых селились свободные ремесленники. В пользу князя население посадов несло повинности – посадское тягло. К концу XVI в. России насчитывалось около 220 городов. Самым крупным городом была Москва с населением 100 тыс. человек, в остальных городах России проживало по 3-8 тыс, человек. Наиболее крупными русскими городами были: Новгород, Псков, Вологда, Великий Устюг, Казань, Ярославль, Соль Камская, Калуга, Нижний Новгород, Тула, Астрахань.

In the XVI century. наблюдался подъем ремесленного производства, что выражалось в дифференциации его видов, увеличивалось количество производств и новых специальностей, что способствовало развитию обмена, хотя связи городского ремесла с рынком еще были слабыми.

Выделяются крупные промыслы, работающие на рынок: солеварение, добыча и плавка железной руды, строительство каменных зданий, лесной промысел, поташное производство. Специализация производства была тесно связана с наличием местного сырья и носила исключительно естественно-географический характер.

Развивается торговля. Если в XV в. торговля осуществлялась на местных рынках, то в XVI в. на уездных. Наряду с купцами торговлей занимались светские и духовные феодалы, особенно монастыри. Сформировались торговые потоки – из центра и южных районов на север везли хлеб, из Поволжья – кожи, из Поморья и Сибири – пушнину, рыбу, соль; Тула и Серпухов отправляли металл.

In the XVI century. установились торговые связи Российского государства с Англией через основанный в 1584 г. Архангельск. В век образования мирового рынка и Великих географических открытий Россия вела торговлю с Польшей, Литовским княжеством, с татарским ханством, Кавказом, Средней Азией, Турцией, Персией. В западные страны Россия вывозила в основном сырье, в восточные страны – продукцию ремесленного производства.