Chapter 12 The foreign policy of European countries in the XVIII century.

• International Relations in Europe

• The colonial policy of the European powers

• War of Independence in the English colonies in North America

12.1. International Relations in Europe

The decisive role in the foreign policy of Europe belonged to five states; France, England, Russia, Austria and Prussia. The main sphere of struggle between these powers is fragmented Italy and Germany, Poland and the countries of the Balkan Peninsula, which were under Turkish rule.

During the XVIII century. the main conflicts between the European powers were the struggle of England and France for maritime and colonial hegemony, Austria and Prussia - for dominance in Germany, Russia - for access to the Baltic and Black Seas, which confronted her primarily with Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.

North War. Back in the XVI-XVII centuries. Russia tried to seize the Baltic coast. Its main opponent was Sweden, whose territory included Livonia, Finland and Estland, as well as the former Russian possessions - Izhora lands and Karelia. Preparing for war, Peter I in 1699 formed an alliance with Denmark, Saxony and Poland, and in 1700 signed a truce with Turkey and declared war on Sweden. In 1700, the Northern War began, which lasted until 1721.

Peter I moved the 35-thousand army on the Swedish fortress Narva, but its siege was delayed. The Swedish army was led by King Charles XII (1697-1718), a young and skilful military leader. In November 1700 the Russian army was defeated near Narva. Charles XII, considering that Russia was finished, moved to Poland to defeat Russia's ally, the Saxon Elector and at the same time from 1697 - the Polish King Augustus II (1670-1733).

However, Peter I did not accept the defeat and began to reorganize the army. From 1702, the military initiative passed into the hands of Peter I. By the spring of 1703, the Russian army liberated the entire basin of the r. Neva and went to the shores of the Baltic Sea.

At this time, the Swedes captured Warsaw and Krakow. In 1704, the Polish Sejm deposed Augustus II and proclaimed Stanislav I Leshchinsky (1677-1766) king. In 1704-1706 The Swedes inflicted a series of defeats on the Saxon, Polish, and Russian forces and forced Poland to withdraw from the war (Altranstadt Treaty 1706).

Russia was left alone with Sweden, the search for allies did not lead to anything. The Swedes attempted to recapture the Izhora lands, but failed. The main forces of Charles XII focused on Ukraine, he proposed to move them to Moscow. In April 1709, the Swedes laid siege to Poltava. June 27 (July 8) was the battle of Poltava. The Swedish army was defeated. Karl XII with the remnants of his army fled to Turkey. It was a turning point in the war. The Northern Union resumed, joined by Prussia. March 31, 1710 Russia and Sweden signed in the Hague an obligation not to wage hostilities in the Swedish possessions in Germany, on this insisted England and Holland. In the same year, Livonia and Estonia were occupied, Russian troops captured Vyborg, Kexholm and Wilmanstrand - the way out of the Gulf of Finland was free.

In 1712-1714 Russia's allies, with its support, won a number of victories in the European theater of military operations. In 1713-1714 Russia occupied part of the territory of Finland. On July 27 (August 7), 1714, the Russian galley fleet defeated the Swedish fleet at Cape Gangut. On land, the Russian army reached Luleå.

In 1718, Charles XII died in Norway. In 1719, Russia transferred military operations to the territory of Sweden, whose human and financial resources were depleted. In January 1720, Sweden entered into an alliance with England and peace with Prussia, and in June with Denmark. In May 1720, an English squadron entered the Baltic Sea, but its attempts to attack Revel were unsuccessful. In 1720 the Russian fleet won a victory at the Grengam Island. On August 30 (September 10), a peace treaty was signed with Sweden in Nishtadt.

As a result of the military victory, Russia gained access to the Baltic Sea and thus decided one of the most important tasks of its foreign policy. 11 (October 22), 1721. The Senate and the Most Holy Synod assign to Peter I the titles “Father of the Fatherland All-Russian Emperor” and “The Great”, and Russia becomes an empire.

Between the "Glorious English" in 1688 and the Great French Revolutions for about 35 years falls on the wars between France and England. The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714), the War of the Polish Succession (1733-1738), the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748), the Seven Years War (1756-1763). Moreover, other states were drawn into the orbit of these wars.

War of Succession

The war for the Spanish inheritance. Let us dwell a little more on these warriors. The reason for the war for the Spanish inheritance (1701-1714) was the death of the last Habsburg on the Spanish throne - childless King Charles II. The contenders for the Spanish throne were France, the Holy Roman Empire and Prussia. Under the will of Charles II, who sought to avoid the division of the Spanish possessions, the crown was to pass to the grandson of the French king Philip, Duke of Anjou. In 1700 he became the Spanish king Philip V, and in 1701 heir to the French throne. If he inherited the French throne, then in the West of Europe there would appear a mighty Franco-Spanish empire, which would be incredibly difficult to resist. Against Louis XIV (1638-1715) united England, Holland, the Holy Roman Empire, Prussia and others.

The whole territory of Europe from the Vistula to the Atlantic Ocean has become an arena of military battles. Under the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) and the Reshtatt peace treaties, Philip V was recognized by the Spanish king, but he refused the rights to the French throne. Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI gained Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and Italy (Neapolitan kingdom, part of Tuscany and the duchy of Milan), Prussia was recognized as a kingdom, a number of Spanish possessions in North America were in the hands of England, control of the Spanish Gibraltar and French port Magon in the Mediterranean . As a result of the victory over France in the war, England occupied a dominant position in the world.

War for the Polish inheritance. Twenty years after the end of the war for the Spanish inheritance, the countries of Europe were again plunged into the war, the reason for which was the Polish inheritance. Russia, Austria and Saxony, on the one hand, and France, Spain, Sardinia and Bavaria took part in the war. The reason for the war was the election of the King of Poland after the death of Augustus II.

France nominated Stanislav Leschinsky, whose election would significantly weaken Russia's influence in Poland and in Eastern Europe in general. Russia and Austria supported the candidature of the Saxon Elector Augustus, who claimed the Polish throne. Russia sent its troops to Eastern Poland. On September 12, 1733, the Sejm in Warsaw elected King Leszczynski as king.

In the course of the outbreak of war, the Russian army successfully advanced deep into Poland. In July 1734 Gdansk fell. Leshchinsky fled. Most of the Polish magnates went over to the side of August III. Russia, having left part of the troops in Poland, moved to the aid of Austria, who was defeated by France. In 1735, hostilities ceased, but the conflict ended with the signing of the Vienna Peace Treaty only in 1738. France recognized August III, the royal title entrenched for Leschinsky, and Lorraine and Bar county passed to him (after his death, these lands were ceded to France). Austria rejected the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, and Sardinia acquired a part of the duchy of Milan. After the war, Russia's position in Europe strengthened.

In the 40s, after an almost 30-year hiatus, wars in Western Europe again unfolded under the banner of a struggle between Britain and France for trade and colonial predominance.

War for the Austrian inheritance. From 1740 to 1748 the war for the Austrian inheritance was waged in connection with the attempt to divide the ownership of the House of Austrian Habsburgs. According to the decree of Emperor Charles VI, all the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs were inseparable, and the throne, if he had no sons, should go to his eldest daughter Maria Theresa (1717-1780). When Charles VI died (1740), the rights of the heiress were challenged by the sovereigns of Bavaria, Saxony and Spain. In the outbreak of the war, two coalitions of the Franco-Prussian-Bavarian-Spanish and Austro-Anglo-Dutch forces clashed, on the side of which since 1746 Russia has acted. Under the Treaty of Aachen (1748), the Hapsburgs managed to retain most of their possessions, with the exception of Silesia, which ceded to Prussia (the Dresden Peace of 1745) and parts of the Italian lands acquired by Spain and Sardinia.

This war did not solve anything in the Anglo-French dispute. The peace treaty became only a means of preparing for a new, more bloody war, which in its duration was called the Seven-Year War.

XVIII century wars

Seven-year war. The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was brought about by contradictions between England and France because of the colonies in North America and the East Indies, as well as the conflict of interests between Austria, France and Russia with the aggressive policies of the Prussian King Frederick II the Great (1712-1786).

In May 1757, a year after the outbreak of hostilities, the 70-thousand Russian army moved from Livonia to the Neman, occupied Memel, and in January 1758 - Tilsit and Koenigsberg. East Prussia was ceded to Russia. In the summer of 1759, the Russian army occupied Frankfurt an der Oder. September 28 (October 9), 1760, Berlin was taken, but was soon abandoned due to the approach of large enemy formations. The campaign of 1761 was successful for the Russian army, Prussia was defeated. Frederick II was already thinking about suicide, but a “miracle” happened. On December 25, 1761, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna died, and the throne passed to Peter III (1761-1762), an ardent admirer of Frederick II. On April 13 (24), 1762, the new Russian emperor Peter III concluded peace with Prussia and returned to her all the conquered territories, and on May 29 (June 9) an alliance with Prussia.

Part of the Russian troops joined the former enemy. With the ascension to the throne of Catherine II, the Russian troops were withdrawn to Russia. In November 1762 peace was signed between Prussia and France, a truce between Prussia and Austria, and in January 1763 a peace treaty between France and England.

The European borders of the states remained unchanged: the colonies were subject to repartition: England seized Canada from France, East Louisiana, islands in the West Indies and its possessions in India, and Spain from Florida. France lost all its possessions on the North American continent. Russia did not receive any territorial benefits, but Prussia, one of its main enemies, was exhausted.

After the Peace of Paris in 1763 for almost three decades, the continent was spared from the all-European war and from the hostilities between the main European powers. This was the result of the establishment of peaceful relations between Russia and Prussia, and Austria joined them, retaining close ties with France. This relative agreement was sealed by participation in sections of Poland.

Sections of Poland. Under the first section of 1772, Prussia withdrew Pomerania (Pomerania), part of Greater Poland, Austria - Galicia, Russia - part of Belarusian lands.

The second partition of Poland was preceded by an increase in revolutionary attitudes in Europe in connection with the revolution in France and, in particular, in Poland. In 1791, a constitution was introduced in Poland, which, despite a number of flaws, was progressive and irritated the monarchs of Europe. In 1793, Russia and Prussia made the second section: Prussia — the Polish lands were withdrawn, Russia — Belorussia and Right-Bank Ukraine. The second section displeased the patriots of Poland. In 1794 an uprising began in Poland led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko (1746-1817). The uprising was crushed, and this led to the third partition of Poland (1795): Austria and Prussia received Polish lands, Russia - Kurland, Lithuania, Western Belorussia, Western Volyn. As a result of sections of the Commonwealth as a state ceased to exist.

Sections of Poland were, of course, a reactionary act in which the Russian autocracy played an unseemly role.

Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774 In the 60s. XVIII century. a difficult political game was taking place in Europe. The degree of rapprochement of certain countries was determined by the strength of the contradictions between them. Russia's strongest contradictions were with France and Austria. Austria was afraid of Russia's gain in the Balkans and in Poland. In September 1768, instigated by Austria and France, Turkey declared war on Russia. If in the XVII century. The Ottoman Empire represented a formidable force and led an aggressive policy in Europe and the Middle East, then by the second half of the 18th century. she lost her former power and would not mind returning it at the expense of Russia. In 1768 she declared war on Russia, which lasted until 1774. For the first three years, the Ottoman troops did not manage to win a single victory. Two of the many lesions were particularly devastating. The first of them happened on June 25-26, 1770, when the Russian squadron, having rounded Europe, appeared in the Mediterranean Sea and gained a brilliant victory under Chesma . All enemy ships, with the exception of one, locked in the bay were burnt. Admirals G.А. commanded the Russian fleet in the Battle of Chesmen . Spiridov (1713–1790) and C. C. Greig (1735–1788). A month later, a talented commander, P.A. Rumyantsev (1725-1796) in the battle of Kagul, where Russian troops inflicted a crushing defeat on the Ottomans despite the enemy’s considerable numerical superiority.

In 1770-1774 the crisis of the Ottoman Empire intensified. Military operations were conducted in the Black Sea and in the Caucasus. The Russian army conducted this war extremely successfully.

In the summer of 1770 in Moldova, Russian troops under the command of Field Marshal P.A. Rumyantsev, defeating the enemy on the banks of the Larga and Cahul, came to the Lower Danube. Not relying on outside help, the Ottomans in 1772 agreed to conduct peace negotiations. The main point of disagreement was the question of the fate of the Crimea. The Ottoman Empire refused to grant it independence, while Russia insisted on it. Military action resumed.

Russian troops occupied the Crimea. In the battles of Turtukai, Girsov (1773) and Kozludzhey (1774), troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov (1729 / 1730-1800) won major victories.

In July 1774, a peace treaty was signed in the Bulgarian village of Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi, according to which Russia would withdraw land between the Bug and the Dnieper, including the sea coast, the fortresses in the Crimea, and the Crimean Khanate was declared independent. Russian merchant navy received the right to free navigation through the straits.

Crimean question. The main issues of Russian foreign policy in the 80s. also was the Crimean. The diplomatic struggle around him did not stop. In April 1783, Catherine II issued a manifesto "On the Adoption of the Crimean Peninsula, Taman Island and the whole Kuban side under the Russian State." It was an event of great historical importance. The Crimean peninsula - in the past, the springboard of Turkey for an attack on Russia - has now become an important strategic position of the Russian state. With the annexation of the Crimea, Russia has firmly established itself on the shores of the Black Sea.

Even more serious friction with Turkey arose because of the Caucasus. Struggling with Turkish rule, the Georgian king Heraclius II (1720-1798) in 1783 recognized the protectorate of Russia over Georgia. Russian troops entered Georgia.

Catherine II's foreign policy in the 80s. Since the late 70s. Catherine II begins to deviate from the orientation towards Prussia in foreign policy and look for new ways in European relations.

England sought to attract Russian forces to participate in the war with America, even promised to give Russia the island of Menorca for it. But Catherine II showed no desire to fight for others. On the contrary, in connection with the Anglo-American War, on February 28, 1780, Russia issued a famous declaration of maritime armed neutrality. This act established the right of neutral ships to defend themselves in the sea with weapons and was directed against England, which sought to govern in international waters.

Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791 From 1780, Russia began a rapprochement with Austria on the basis of common interests in relation to Turkey and Poland.

Meanwhile, in the ruling circles of Turkey, a new wave of anti-Russian sentiment has risen. In 1787, Turkey made an ultimatum with a number of unacceptable demands. The ultimatum was rejected, and the second Russian-Turkish war began (1787-1791). It proceeded in a difficult international situation for Russia. At this time, formed a union of England, Prussia and Holland, aimed at undermining the position of Russia in the Baltic. These countries provoked Sweden, and the war with it in 1788-1790. weakened the strength of Russia, although the 1790 peace treaty did not introduce any territorial changes between Russia and Sweden.

At that time only Austria provided support to Russia, and that by insignificant forces. Nevertheless, this war showed the superiority of the Russian army.

During these years, A.V. Suvorov. In 1787, he defeats the Turks during the siege of Kinburn, then in 1788 takes the powerful fortress of Ochakov. In 1789, Suvorov won two convincing victories over the enemy, many times superior in number, at Focsani and on the r. Rymnik, for which he received the title of Count Rymniksky.

In 1790, the Russian army under his leadership captured the impregnable hitherto Izmail fortress . The Russian troops again crossed the Danube and were ready to go to Constantinople. Turkey was forced to sign a peace treaty with Russia in Iasi on December 29 (January 9), 1792, confirming the terms of the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhsky world, and also recognizing the annexation of Crimea to Russia.

Anti-French Coalition. At the end of 1795, Russia, England and Austria concluded an anti-French coalition. In Russia, preparations began for an expeditionary force for action against revolutionary France. Send it failed because of the death of Empress Catherine II.

Павел 1 (1754-1801) начал царствование с заявлений о мире, но затем объявил войну Франции и Испании после захвата Мальты. В 1798 г. Россия вошла в новую антифранцузскую коалицию в составе Австрии, Османской империи, Англии и Неаполя, и Павел I посылает Ф.Ф. Ушакова (1744-1817) и А.В. Суворова сражаться в Средиземноморье и в Италию но вскоре, сочтя себя преданным союзниками, образует лигу нейтральных стран, куда входят Пруссия, Швеция и Дания. В итоге произошел крутой поворот во внешней политике России, она заключает мир с Францией. Павел I начал готовиться к походу в Индию, но в марте 1801 г. в результате заговора был убит.