8. The newest time: Russia in the XX century

Russia in the twentieth century.

The 20th century was extremely important not only for the world-historical process, but also especially for the fate of Russia. If during the IX-XIX centuries, our country developed in an evolutionary way, then in the XX century. In Russia, the era of social revolution. Only in the first 17 years of the beginning of the 20th century, as many as three of them occurred. Such a revolutionary explosion is explained by the contradictions that have accumulated in the political, social, economic, national spheres of the public life of the country, which formed a tight knot that could not be untied in the usual way.

The October Socialist Revolution of 1917 rejected a system based on private ownership of the means of production, and Russia radically changed the vector of movement. It turned out to be the first country in the history of mankind to attempt to build socialism - a society based on state ownership with a planned centralized mechanism of governance. On this path, the Soviet government headed by the communist party, which had a monopoly position, made significant mistakes in the economic, social, and political spheres, which led to certain deformations of the socialist system. However, the planned centralized system allowed in a short historical period to bring the country into the ranks of the leading states in technical and economic development, which became the guarantee of the Victory over fascism in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945, the creation of the world socialist system, i.e. socialist relations went beyond the framework of one country, the contribution of the Soviet Union to the elimination of the colonial system of capitalism.

Strengthening the international position of Russia contributed to its successful economic development in the postwar 1946-1970, when, along with another giant, the United States was the leader of the first stage of the modern scientific and technological revolution and ensured the geopolitical balance of the Planet. However, the lack of knowledge of the chosen path, the race in competition with the capitalist system exclusively in the military-industrial complex (including space exploration) led to the formation of a monopolized bulky economic structure in the country, with hypertrophied development of the branches of group “A”, i.e. production of means of production, which made it impossible to pay due attention to the development of the sphere of consumption. The ideology of a one-party system prevailed in political life, which narrowed democratic principles to the limit in society.

Thus, comprehensive transformations in the country were necessary.

Chapter 21. Russia in the first half of the twentieth century

• Revolutions in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.

• The main stages of the development of the country of the Soviets in the prewar period (X. 1917 - VI. 1941).

• Great Patriotic War (1941-1945)

21.1. Revolutions in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century

After the industrial rise of the 90s. XIX century. Russia experienced a severe economic crisis of 1900-1903, then a period of prolonged depression (1904-1908). In the years 1909-1913. The country's economy has made a new leap. The industries producing the means of production (Group A) increased their products by 83%, and the sectors producing consumer goods (Group B) increased by 35.3%. During these years (with the exception of 1911), high yields were noted in Russia, which gave the country's economic development a solid base.

However, the socio-political processes taking place in the country led to the emergence of a revolutionary situation caused by the preservation of the remnants of feudalism (autocracy, landowner tenure, etc.).

Despite some bourgeois reforms, Russia remained an absolute monarchy. Autocracy was based on the local nobility and protected its interests. The unlimited power was manifested in the omnipotence of officials and the police, in the civil and political lack of rights of the masses. Russia was the only major European country that did not know the elements of parliamentarism. All main strata of the population were dissatisfied with the existing autocratic system. The difficult domestic political situation aggravated the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905.

The bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1905-1907 The beginning of the revolution was the “Bloody Sunday” - January 9, 1905, when the peaceful march of 140 thousand workers in St. Petersburg to the Winter Palace was shot to submit to the tsar a petition about their needs. Across the country, “Bloody Sunday” caused a general outburst of indignation.

By its nature, the revolution of 1905-1907. in Russia, it was bourgeois-democratic, since it set the tasks of a bourgeois-democratic transformation of the country: the overthrow of autocracy, the establishment of a democratic republic, the elimination of the estate system and landlordism. In other words, her task was the revolutionary liquidation of feudal-serf survivals that remained in the country.

During the revolution, three main stages were defined:

January 9 - September 1905: political strikes and demonstrations in a number of cities; the emergence of the first in the country Council of Workers' Deputies in Ivanovo-Voznesensk; uprising on the battleship Potemkin.

October - December 1905: October All-Russian political strike; Czar Manifesto on October 17; the creation of a legislative State Duma, the defeat of the December armed uprising in Moscow.

January 1906 - June 3, 1907: the decline of the revolution, the dispersal of the 1st and 2nd State Duma; the end of the revolution.

The dissolution on June 3, 1905 of the State Duma meant the final defeat and the end of the revolution. A wave of arrests, searches, and administrative expulsions swept across the country. One of the organizers of the suppression of the revolution was PA Stolypin (1862-1911) - Chairman of the Council of Ministers and Minister of the Interior. In order to avoid a new revolution, Stolypin proposed a transformation program, in which agrarian reform took the leading place, creating additional social support for tsarism in the village in the face of rich peasants (kulaks). The agrarian reform did not produce the desired results, and its author, P.A. Stolypin was killed in 1911 by Social Revolutionary Bagrov.

Russia's participation in the First World War

Russia's participation in the First World War. The beginning of the XX century. was characterized by aggravation between the leading European countries, the intensification of their struggle for spheres of influence. The main contradictions were the reasons for the First World War: the Anglo-German rivalry for leadership in Europe and on the sea lanes; the Franco-German contradictions over Alsace-Lorraine; Russia's rivalry with Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Balkans.

At the beginning of the XX century. finally formed two opposing blocs of states: the Entente (led by Russia, England, France) and the Fourth Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria). The countries of both blocks began to prepare for war.

The reason for the outbreak of world war was the events in the Balkans in the summer of 1914, when the heir to the Austrian throne Herzog Franz Ferdinand was killed by Serb nationalists on 15 (28) June in Sarajevo. July 13 (28) 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia announced a general mobilization. Germany July 19 (August 1), 1914 declared war on Russia, and two days later - on France. Belgium, Bulgaria, Italy, Japan, Turkey and other countries entered the war.

Russia entered the war unprepared: it was not until 1917 that the country's military program was completed.

Russia's military actions unfolded in East Prussia against Germany and on the South-Western Front against Austria-Hungary. In December 1914, Russian troops defeated the Turkish army in the Caucasus. However, in the spring and summer of 1915, due to heavy losses on the fronts, the inconsistency of the actions of the Russian command, and most importantly the acute shortage of weapons and ammunition, the course of military operations was unsuccessful for the Russian troops. German troops occupied Galicia, Poland, Lithuania, part of the Baltic States and Belarus.

In 1916, only the offensive of the Russian army on the South-Western Front under the command of General A.A. Brusilov (1853-1926). But the “Brusilov breakthrough,” in which the Russian army reached the Carpathians, was not supported by other fronts. Not having received resources and ammunition, Brusilov in Galicia went on the defensive, success was not developed.

Along with the failures at the front, the crisis situation in the field of the country's economy was growing. War demanded colossal expenses. Budget expenditures in 1916 exceeded revenues by 76%. Taxes were sharply increased. The government went for a mass issue of money without gold collateral, which led to a drop in the value of the ruble, disruption of the entire financial system in the state, and an extraordinary increase in high prices.

The collapse of the economy, food difficulties forced the tsarist government in 1916 to go for the introduction of compulsory bread grain. Food supplies in Petrograd accounted for only half of his needs. Due to the lack of fuel in Petrograd, already in December 1916, about 80 enterprises stopped working.

Failures on the fronts, worsening of the internal situation caused frustration and discontent with the government’s policies. The growth of the revolutionary movement in the country led in the winter of 1916-1917. to the emergence of a new revolutionary situation.

February Revolution of 1917

The February Revolution of 1917 By the end of 1916, there was a deep economic, political and social crisis in Russia, which in February 1917 resulted in a revolution.

On February 18, a strike began at the Putilov factory; On February 25, the strike became general; February 26 began an armed uprising; On February 27 a significant part of the army went over to the side of the revolution.

At the same time, the revolutionary workers elected the Petrograd Soviet, headed by Menshevik N.S. Chkheidze (1864-1926) and the SR of A.F. Kerensky (1881-1970). In the State Duma a temporary committee was established, headed by M.V. Rodzianko (1859-1924). This committee, in agreement with the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet, formed the Provisional Government headed by Prince G.Ye. Lvov (1861-1925). It includes the leader of the cadet party, P.N. Guchkov (1862-1936) (military and maritime minister), SR of AF Kerensky (Minister of Justice) and others. Most of the ministerial posts were occupied by representatives of the Cadet party. Emperor Nicholas II (1868-1918) under the pressure of the revolutionary masses on March 2 (15), 1917 abdicated the throne.

A characteristic feature of the February Revolution was the formation of diarchy. On the one hand, the Provisional Bourgeois Government operated, and on the other, the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies (in July 1917, the Soviets ceded their power to the Provisional Government).

The February Revolution, having won in Petrograd, quickly spread throughout the country.

The peaceful development of the revolution in terms of dual power. After the February Revolution, the main political parties operated in Russia: the Cadets, Octobrists, Social Revolutionaries, Mensheviks and Bolsheviks. The policies of the Provisional Government were determined by the Cadets. They were supported by the Octobrists, Mensheviks and Right-wing Socialist Revolutionaries. The Bolsheviks at their VII (April 1917) conference approved the course for the preparation of a socialist revolution.

In order to stabilize the situation and mitigate the food crisis, the Provisional Government introduced a rationing system, increased purchase prices, increased imports of meat, fish and other products. The bread distribution, introduced back in 1916, was supplemented with meat, and for the forced removal of bread and meat from the peasants in the village, armed military detachments were sent.

The Provisional Government in the spring and summer of 1917 experienced three political crises: April, June and July. During these crises, mass demonstrations were held under the slogans: “All power to the Soviets!”, “Down with ten capitalist ministers!”, “Down with war!”. These slogans were put forward by the Bolshevik Party.

The July crisis of the Provisional Government began on July 4, 1917, when a 500-thousand demonstration was held in Petrograd under the Bolshevik slogans. During the demonstration, spontaneous exchanges of fire took place, as a result of which more than 400 people were killed and wounded. Petrograd was declared in a state of martial law, the Pravda newspaper was closed, an order was issued to arrest VI. Lenin and a number of other Bolsheviks. A second coalition government was formed (the first was formed on May 6 (18), 1917 as a result of the April crisis), headed by A.F. Kerensky, endowed with extraordinary powers. This meant the end of the dual power.

At the end of July and the beginning of August 1917, the Sixth Congress of the Bolshevik Party was held semi-legally in Petrograd. Due to the fact that the dual power was over and the Soviets were powerless, the Bolsheviks temporarily removed the slogan "All power to the Soviets!" The congress proclaimed a policy of armed seizure of power.

On September 1, 1917, Russia was proclaimed a republic, power passed to the Directory of five people under the leadership of A.F. Kerensky. At the end of September, a third coalition government was formed, headed by A.F. Kerensky.

The socio-economic and political crisis in the country continued to grow. Many industrial enterprises closed down, unemployment grew, military spending and taxes increased, inflation raged, there was a shortage of food, the poorest segments of the population were threatened with hunger. In the village there were massive peasant uprisings, the unauthorized seizure of landed estates.

October armed uprising. The Bolshevik Party, putting forward topical slogans, has gained greater influence among the masses. Its ranks quickly grew: if in February 1917 it numbered 24 thousand, April - 80 thousand, in August - 240 thousand, then in October about - 400 thousand people. In September 1917, the process of Bolshevization of the Soviets took place; The Petrograd Soviet was headed by Bolshevik LD D. Trotsky (1879-1940), and the Moscow Council - Bolshevik V.P. Nogin (1878-1924).

Under the circumstances, V.I. Lenin (1870-1924) believed that the moment of preparation and conduct of an armed uprising was brewing. This question was discussed at the meetings of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (B) on October 10 and 16, 1917. The Petrograd Soviet created the Military Revolutionary Committee, which became the headquarters for the preparation of the uprising. The armed uprising began on October 24, 1917. Revolutionary-minded soldiers and sailors, Red Guard workers on October 24 and 25 seize the telegraph, bridges, train stations, a telephone exchange, the main headquarters building. The Provisional Government was arrested in the Winter Palace (except for Kerensky, who had previously left for reinforcements). The uprising from Smolny led VI. Lenin.

On the evening of October 25 (November 7), 1917, the II All-Russian Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies' Councils opened. The congress heard and accepted what was written by V.I. Lenin's appeal “Workers, Soldiers and Peasants”, in which he announced the transfer of power to the II Congress of Soviets, and on the ground - to the Soviets of workers, soldiers and peasants' deputies. On the evening of October 26 (November 8), 1917, the Decree on Peace and the Decree on Land were adopted. The congress formed the first Soviet government, the Council of People's Commissars, composed of: Chairman V.I. Lenin; People's Commissars: in foreign affairs Trotsky, for nationalities I.V. Stalin (1879-1953) and others. LB was elected Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Kamenev (1883-1936), and after his resignation Ya.M. Sverdlov (1885-1919).

On November 3, 1917, Soviet power was established in Moscow and the “triumphal procession” of Soviet power began throughout the country.

One of the main reasons for the rapid spread of the Bolshevik Soviets in the country was the fact that the October Revolution was carried out under the sign of not so much socialist as general democratic tasks.