8.4. France

Other countries have eliminated the feudal system in their own way and in a different chronological framework, although the capitalist system has penetrated into the urban economy and the countryside in almost every one of them.

Absolutism in France. In the second half of the XV century. under Louis XI (1423-1483), centralization of the state was basically completed. As his unity strengthened absolutism, which intensified after the religious wars of 1562-1594. between catholics and huguenots. Both in that and in the other camp the lower classes and petty nobility were the most active force, and the feudal nobility headed the struggle, interested in restricting royal power. The leaders of Catholics are the dukes of Giza, the Huguenots - Antoine Bourbon (1518-1562), Prince Louis II Conde (1621-1686), the admiral G. Coligny (1519-1572), and also Henry of Navarre - the future king of France Henry IV (1553-1610 ). When Henry IV ascended the throne in 1594, he converted to Catholicism, hostilities largely ended. In 1598, the Edict of Nantes was signed, according to which Catholicism remained the dominant religion, but the Huguenots were granted freedom of religion and worship in cities (except Paris).

From 1302 in France, the States-General were elected - the estate-representative institution, consisting of members of the clergy, nobility, and persons of the third estate. The states-general was convened by the king, as a rule, to obtain consent for the collection of taxes. As absolutism strengthened, the role of this institution decreased. In 1614, under Louis XIII (1601-1643), the States General was dissolved, as the deputies from the third estate called for extending taxes on previously non-taxable lands of the nobility and clergy, abolishing other privileges of the upper classes and restricting administrative arbitrariness. For the next 175 years, the States General did not meet.

Absolutism in France reached its apogee under Louis XIV (1638-1715), who became king in 1643. His power was so unlimited that legend ascribes a dictum to him; "The state is me." The squandering of the royal court, favoritism, the payment of a huge bureaucracy (the most numerous), large military spending ¹ , obligations for public debt — all this forced the royal power to increase taxes, to which the tax (unprivileged) classes responded with numerous uprisings (1548, 1624, 1639 and others).

Features of socio-economic development. Especially difficult was the situation of the peasantry, who experienced triple oppression (the king, the feudal lord and the church). The bulk of the peasantry was landless in France. For the use of land, the French peasant paid feudal rent, amounting to 1/4 of the harvested crop. Even more difficult was the payment of a cash dues - chinsha. The peasants paid, in addition, tithe in favor of the church and three taxes to the king ( with a waist - from income, capitation - a poll tax, twenty dollars - a tax on the land). Fencing in contrast to England in France did not take large scales.

France lagged behind in the development of industry. The domination of the guild system hampered the growing demand for industrial products and limited the earning potential of the urban poor. Therefore, the nascent bourgeoisie and the lower strata of the townspeople opposed the guild organization of handicraft production. The trade did not receive due development due to the predominance of the rural population, as well as the presence of internal customs duties. However, bourgeois relations in France were born, and the process of primitive accumulation of capital took place. Its main channels were the tax system, government loans (ie, the public debt system), the sale of judicial and financial posts. Especially burdensome was the tax on salt. In 1439, a direct tax was introduced - a large, or royal, talya, levied on land, property, or in person (per capita). The tax was not fixed and taxpayers suffered from the arbitrariness of collectors. In 1549, in France, along with a large tali, they introduced a small hoist, the proceeds of which went to pay the troops. In the XVI century. the buy-in system was introduced: in 1604, the finance advisor M. Sully (1560-1641) established the general French buy-out of taxes. Payoff system has become a source of primitive accumulation of capital.

The first government rent loans were issued in France in 1522, when King Francis I (1494-1543) borrowed 250 thousand livres from the Paris bankers at the rate of 10%. The speculation on the rental paper rate began, the interest rates grew. The result of the public debt system was the tonton - the inheritance of the right to receive interest on government loans. Since that time, the number of rentiers has increased - individuals living on interest from securities. However, the uncontrolled release of government rents led to bankruptcies. And in 1596 and in 1604 Sully was forced to cancel state loans.

The increase in the royal waist and other taxes, as well as increased usury exploitation in France, determined the process of property stratification and dezement of the peasantry. The well-to-do and the bourgeois strata used the opportunity to buy up the rights of nobles to collect rent, took indirect taxes on them, were engaged in mortgage loans, bought land. Thus, it was not entrepreneurship that prevailed in France, but usury and repurchase operations. Many French bourgeois preferred to be officials of a huge administrative and judicial apparatus and bought posts for money.

These features of the socio-economic development of France and led to the originality of manufacturing construction. Unlike England, where the bourgeoisie was engaged in the development of manufactories, in France, manufacturing enterprises arose with the participation of the state.

Economic policy. Henry IV. Richelieu. Colbertism

Economic policy. Henry IV. Richelieu. Colbertis. French absolutism supported . manufactory monopoly rights, privileges, subsidies, pursued a policy of mercantilism, originated under Henry IV, who strongly encouraged trade and industrial development. During this period, the French economy was in an upset state. And Henry IV after the conclusion of peace with Spain in 1559 engaged in economic recovery. Great help in this was provided by Finance Minister Sully. First of all, he put in order the frustrated finances, for which strict accountability and control in the spending of treasury money were introduced. Were found new sources of income. He took measures to raise farming, seeing the reason for his lag in the weight of state and landowner dues from the peasants. Henry IV, in addition, tried to raise the manufacturing industry - manufacturing, providing him with financial support and granting privileges. He organized public works (construction of buildings, bridges, improvement of roads), which provided wages to impoverished people. In the years 1606-1607. he concluded a number of treaties with other countries, contributed to the colonization of Canada, imposed a ban on the import of textile goods and the export of raw materials (silk, wool).

This policy was continued by Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642), from 1624 the former head of the royal council and the de facto ruler of France. He contributed to the strengthening of absolutism. Occupying a high position in the Catholic Church, Richelieu at the same time protected the French church from the claims of the papal court. In order to strengthen the French monarchy involved France in the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). He was irreconcilable with the political and military organization of the Huguenots, but allowed freedom of their religion and equality with other citizens. He tried to limit some of the rights of the nobility, stopped collecting the General States, in which the nobility played an important role. Richelieu also conducted administrative, financial, military reforms. In the course of the reforms, many notable governors of large areas (provinces) of France were displaced.

For rigorous execution of royal orders now followed officials sent to the provinces and major cities. In response, noble grandees conspired against Richelieu, which the omnipotent minister mercilessly suppressed. With him were banned duels. However, Richelieu acted as a whole in the interests of the feudal class, during the years of his rule the taxes paid by the lower estates increased fourfold.

The policy of mercantilism received the greatest scope under J. Colbert (1619-1683). He served as the Comptroller General (Minister) of Finance. Colbert believed that the power of the state is determined by the amount of money he has. The source of money he considered trade. Colbert was the founder of the East Indies and West Indies companies, he introduced a protectionist tariff, encouraged the development of the royal manufacturing industry. It was his economic policy that promoted the development of commodity-money relations in France, i.e. capitalist. Under Colbert, state intervention in the economy reached its greatest strength, and French mercantilism, practiced, went down in history as colbertism. In order to ensure an active trade balance in France, a system of protectionist measures was developed: prohibitive duties on the importation of industrial goods (minimizing imports); encouraging the development of domestic industry (export and import substitutes); the creation of export manufactories at state expense, an invitation to the work of foreign masters; distribution of privileges to industrialists (providing them with labor, sometimes even a serf, exemption from taxes).

Silk, woolen and metallurgical manufactories created with the support of Colbert were developed in France. Appeared credit institutions.

Funds for subsidizing manufactory production were mobilized by increasing taxes, which ruined the peasants and reduced their already low purchasing power. Therefore, the production of manufactories was intended to a greater extent for the foreign market. Domestic trade was limited, although Colbert took measures to unify tariffs and consolidate domestic customs areas (up to five).