Lecture
1) Western studies: Loevinger, R. Gould, J. Levinson,
R. Kegan;
2) Domestic approaches to the periodization of adulthood.
The potential for development exists throughout a person's entire life.
Although some scholars argue that the period of adulthood breaks down into
a number of clearly distinguishable stages of development, the very process of development in adulthood
differs somewhat from the processes of development in childhood and youth. Changes
in a person's thinking, behavior and personality are only slightly
conditioned by changes in the body; to a much greater extent they
are determined by personal, social and cultural events or
factors. That is, the main feature of development in adulthood is
its minimal dependence on chronological age, and a much
greater conditioning by the personal circumstances of a person's life –
his experience, occupation, attitudes, and so on.
B.G. Ananiev points out that a person's maturity as an individual
(physical), as a personality (civic), as a subject of cognition
(mental) and of labor (working capacity) does not coincide in time. That is,
adult ages are characterized by unevenness, heterochrony
of individual rates of development and maturation.
It can be said that the course of adult development is, to some extent,
marked out by culturally defined social benchmarks, roles and
relationships that are part of the cycles of family life and career.
Some social events and the transitions associated with them can be
classified as normative, others as non-normative. Normative
events and transitions (or crises) are those whose occurrence is
expected at a certain time or experienced by most people
belonging to a given age category. Conversely, purely
personal, non-normative events and transitions (or crises) occur
completely unexpectedly: the sudden death of a spouse, a serious illness,
winning the lottery, losing a job, and so on. Such events give rise to
considerable stress and require a person to fundamentally restructure his
life, since they are not expected and affect a very narrow circle of people.
A model of the normative crises of life can be considered to be
E. Erikson's epigenetic theory. According to this theory, development in
adulthood depends on the resolution of the problems of preceding periods –
the attainment of trust and autonomy, initiative and industry.
Periodizations of adulthood.
In the 1970s, Levinson's periodization appeared and gained popularity.
Based on a study of 40 men aged 35 to 45, the
life course was divided into three eras of approximately
20 years each. Each era is divided into periods. An era
is characterized by a particular life structure that forms the basis of one's way of
life, mediating the relationship between the individual and society. Eras are separated by
transitional periods – in which the previous life structure is called into
question and then breaks down, and its place is taken by a new structure,
characterizing the next stage of a person's life. Levinson identified
the following periods:
The era of pre-adulthood (0 – 22 years)
The era of early adulthood (17 – 45)
The transition to early adulthood (17 – 22 years)
The life structure of entering early adulthood (22 – 28)
The age-30 transition (28 – 33)
The life structure of the culminating period of early adulthood (33 – 40)
The era of middle adulthood (40 – 65)
The transition to middle adulthood (40 – 45)
The life structure of the initial period of middle adulthood (45 – 50)
The age-50 transition (50 – 55)
The life structure of the culminating period of middle adulthood (55 – 60)
The era of late adulthood (60 - ?)
The transition to late adulthood (60 – 65)
According to Levinson, in order to become fully adult, a man
must cope with 4 tasks arising in the course of development: 1)
reconciling dreams with reality, 2) finding a mentor, 3) securing
a career, 4) establishing close relationships with the opposite sex.
Levinson's study drew criticism from colleagues, since
his study did not cover the development of women.
At roughly the same time, the periodization of J. Loevinger
(1976) and R. Kegan (1982) appeared. These periodizations are aimed at analyzing the stages
of self-concept formation.
R. Gould regards growing up as a process of abandoning childish illusions and
false assumptions in favor of confidence in one's own strength and self-acceptance.
His stages are defined by the illusions that a person going through
that stage abandons.
16 – 22 years – «I am forever bound to my parents»;
22 – 28 years – «success can be achieved by following in my parents' footsteps, but if I
do not succeed, they will help me»;
28 – 34 years – «life is simple and can be controlled»;
35 – 45 years – «the prime of life» – people who, having experienced losses and accepted
the finiteness of their own life, free themselves from childish illusions and
the need for security. This is, in fact, the peak of development and full
autonomous adult consciousness and self-acceptance.
In the theoretical study by V.I. Slobodchikov, presented jointly
with G.A. Tsukerman, adulthood is described through two event-based
communities: reproduction and creativity within the system of social
activities; creativity within the system of existential values. These
communities ensure development in adulthood. Upon entering the first of the
named communities, the subject experiences the crisis of youth – a rupture between the ideal and
reality; upon entering the second – the crisis of adulthood – a rupture between personal
and universally human meanings of life.
At the culminating point of the community, a developmental crisis occurs. This
is the moment when the mastery of new ways of interacting ends and
the development of the individual within the community begins. Within these communities
what is built in the first is a worldview, and in the second a personality (one's own
position in culture and history).
This periodization and its corresponding crises have not yet been
worked out experimentally. But from the general context of this concept
it follows that the higher stages of individual development listed above are
normative-potential ones, but far from all people actually manage
to reach these higher stages of development.
In the functional-stage periodization of mental development
developed by Yu.N. Karandashev, adulthood is represented by three
periods:
The age of early maturity (20 – 28 years);
The age of middle maturity (28 – 34 years);
The age of late maturity (36 – 44 years).
How we react to events occurring in life is, to some
extent, determined by our physical capacities – our state of
health, physical fitness, strength, and endurance. In early maturity
physical development reaches its peak in almost every respect.
(Most young adults are stronger and healthier than in
preceding or subsequent periods, and their reproductive
capacity is at its very height.) These are normative age-related
changes.
Physical strength, organ functioning, reaction speed,
motor skills and other physical capacities of a person reach
their maximum between the ages of 25 and 30. At the same time that
the human body reaches the peak of its physical development, the same happens
with its cognitive activity.
Whereas in childhood and youth the stages of cognitive development have
relatively clear boundaries, in adulthood they are very
difficult to determine, and the stages of cognitive
development identified by some researchers for adulthood are of a hypothetical nature.
The first study we will examine was devoted
to studying changes in thought processes in 140 students at Harvard
and Radcliffe over 4 years of study (Perry, 1970). In this
study it was found that students demonstrate a regular
sequence of changes in their thinking, which Perry designated
as stages:
1) dualism (everything can only be good or bad);
2) conceptual relativism (tolerance toward
a multitude of competing points of view);
3) a self-chosen position and responsibility
(responsibility for the choice of one's own values, views and
way of life).
This sequence of changes, according to Perry, represents
a typical pattern of intellectual development characteristic of early
adulthood.
That is, we can say that cognitive development does not end in
youth. But there is not yet full agreement on the question of which
abilities of adults change and in exactly what way.
3. Psychosocial development in early maturity
The development of an adult can be described in the context of three
independent systems that relate to different aspects of his
self. They include the development of the personal self, the self as a family member (adult child,
spouse or parent) and the self as a worker (Okun, 1984). These systems
are interrelated. (The more satisfaction a father's work
brings him, the higher his self-esteem, and the more likely he is to
display an accepting, loving and encouraging style of parental
behavior). These systems undergo changes under the influence of various
events and circumstances, as well as as a result of interaction with the broader
social environment and culture. All these interactions – and
the personal changes that follow from them – continue throughout
one's life.
According to Erikson's epigenetic theory, the main
problems requiring resolution in early adulthood are
the achievement of identity as opposed to role confusion, and intimacy
as opposed to isolation. The achievement of identity is
the central process for youth, but questions of identity
remain relevant throughout the whole period of adulthood. The process
of achieving identity provides a sense of continuity of experience
in adult life.
The contradiction between intimacy and isolation is another problem characteristic
of early adulthood. Intimacy represents the union of two
identities, but without either individual losing his or her unique
qualities. Isolation results from an inability or
incapacity to achieve mutuality, sometimes because
the individual's identity is so weak that there is a risk of losing
oneself in union with another.
The family is an important context for the development of the adult.
Young people at this age are in the process of individuation –
distancing themselves from the parental family. Hoffman identified 4 types of independence
acquired in the course of this process.
1) Emotional independence (becoming less
socially and psychologically dependent on their parents in
terms of support and love);
2) Attitudinal independence (developing attitudes,
values and a belief system different from those
characteristic of their parents);
3) Functional independence (the ability of a young
person to support himself materially and to solve his own
everyday problems);
4) Conflictual independence (separation from parents in
which young people do not experience feelings of guilt and do not consider
themselves to be committing a betrayal).
The establishment of close relationships, the process of couple and family formation –
is a common occurrence in adult development (Choosing a Partner, Craig, pp.
700-705). The choice of a partner may be dictated by various reasons.
Within psychoanalytic theory, this choice is explained by an attraction to
the parent of the opposite sex that took place in early childhood.
A person unconsciously transfers love for the parent onto other social
objects – his or her potential spouses. Winch's theory of complementary
needs is based on the principle of complementarity
(opposites attract). Centers, within the framework of instrumental
theory of mate selection, says that a person is drawn to someone whose
needs resemble his own or complement them. According to the
«stimulus – value – role» theory developed by Murstein, the choice of a
partner is based on a careful assessment of the merits and shortcomings
of the potential spouse, carried out during the process of courtship.
The family has a predictable life cycle, characterized by a number of
important events. The family cycle is a sequence of predictable
events or periods, beginning with leaving the parental family and
including a series of characteristic events.
The following stages of the family cycle are distinguished:
The first event is leaving the parental family.
The second important event is, as a rule, marriage, with all
the corresponding adaptation processes of establishing relationships with
a new person and his or her relatives.
The third event is the birth of the first child and the beginning
of the period of parenthood. This event is called the formation of one's own
family, or the transition to parenthood.
Other important events in the family life cycle include: the birth of other
children, the first child starting school, a child leaving the family, the death
of one of the spouses, and so on. In an extended family several such cycles may
interact, ensuring a repetition of events and thereby reducing
the adaptational difficulties of each family member. In recent times
family cycles have changed (The Transition to Parenthood, Craig, pp. 706 – 713).
The working life of an adult can be represented as a
professional cycle. The occupational cycle is a changing sequence
of periods in a worker's life, including
familiarization with a profession and occupational choice,
obtaining education and professional training,
beginning independent work and accumulating experience,
advancement up the career ladder and periods
of further professionalization.
This cycle may be accompanied by a number of positive and negative
events affecting a person's professional career.
Super divided a person's occupational path into 5 stages,
focusing attention on the individual's clarification of his inclinations and
abilities: the growth stage (up to 14 years), the exploration stage (15 – 24 years), the
establishment stage (25 – 44 years), the maintenance stage (45 – 64
years) and the decline stage (after 65 years). According to Super, at the age of early
maturity a person goes through the first two stages.
Havighurst proposed a different periodization of the occupational path,
taking into account primarily the acquisition of attitudes and work
skills that allow people to become full-fledged workers:
identification with the worker role, acquisition of basic work skills and
the formation of industriousness, acquisition of a specific occupational
identity, becoming a professional, working for the good of society, and
reflecting on the productive period of one's professional activity.
(Craig, pp. 714 – 724).
Successfully combining work and family responsibilities is one of
the main problems of early adulthood.
After age 30, physical strength, organ functioning and other
physical capacities of a person slowly but noticeably decline. Although
until age 40 their level continues to remain fairly high.
As an important achievement of cognitive development in adulthood,
Klaus Riegel identifies dialectical thinking, or the understanding
of contradictions. He argues that there exists a 5th stage of cognitive
development – the dialectical stage, following the 4th, final stage
of formal operations described by J. Piaget. At the dialectical stage
a person weighs opposing thoughts and synthesizes or
integrates them. A particularly important aspect of dialectical thinking is
the integration of the ideal and the real. The practical, ordinary world (the real)
serves as a dialectical correction of the artificiality of abstract,
formal-operational thinking (the ideal). In this, in Riegel's
view, lies the strength of adult thinking.
The theories of K. Warner Schaie and Robert Kegan focus on
how adults use their acquired intelligence to solve life
problems, and on what influence on cognitive activity is exerted by the new
experience a person acquires in the course of his life. (G. Craig,
Human Development. – pp. 670 – 671).
Kegan believes that people continue to develop meaning systems
throughout their adult life. Kegan identifies several levels
of meaning systems that structure our life experience,
organize thinking and feeling, and give rise to certain behavior. As
people enter adult life, their individual meaning
systems become unique, but retain some commonality with
the meaning systems of other people at the same stage
of age-related development. At each stage the old becomes part of the new.
According to these views, most people continue to structure and
restructure their understanding of the world well into their 40s and even later
(this view represents a rather optimistic position,
but psychotherapists consider these theories useful).
The development of dialectical thinking, the flexible use of intelligence,
and developing meaning systems are just some of
the cognitive achievements characteristic of adulthood.
In middle maturity (according to the functional-stage periodization), a person's development continues within three
main dynamic systems: the self as an individual, the self as a professional, and the self
as a family member.
Within the occupational cycle, experience accumulates and
further advancement up the career ladder takes place. According to Super, this is
the career-establishment stage (25 – 44 years), when a person tries to secure
a firm position in his chosen field of activity, while according to
Havighurst's theory this is the stage of becoming a professional, during which
the adult perfects his professional mastery within
the opportunities provided by the job.
Within the family cycle, this age may be characterized
by an event such as the beginning of the period of parenthood. This is also associated
with the following events:
Changes in parents' sense of self and their assumptions about
family life;
Redistribution of roles and changes in marital
relations;
Changes in the roles and relationships of the older generation;
Changes in roles and relationships outside the family;
New parental roles and relationships.
During this period other important events in the
family life cycle may also occur, such as the birth of other children, the enrollment
of the first child in kindergarten or school, divorce, the death of one of the spouses, and
so on.
At this age, certain physical functions begin to deteriorate,
and changes occur in the structure and functioning of the body's organs and systems.
After age 40, there is a substantial decline in the level of functioning
of the body across 6 important physiological indicators: nerve-impulse
conduction speed, kidney function, cardiovascular function,
muscle strength, useful lung volume, and vital lung capacity. Many of
the undesirable consequences of aging can be lessened by means of
physical exercise, proper nutrition and a healthy lifestyle.
This age is also marked by a number of changes in cognitive
activity. Some researchers divide intelligence into two
broad domains: fluid and crystallized intelligence. Fluid
intelligence (the abilities used for learning something new),
which includes the processes of memorization and inductive reasoning,
reaches the peak of its development in youth and then gradually
declines throughout adulthood. Crystallized intelligence,
which functions on the basis of accumulated knowledge and experience, by contrast
increases with age.
One of the important tasks of this age is simultaneous
adjustment to the increased responsibility for aging parents and
obligations toward one's growing children. Among the tasks that
must be accomplished: letting children go into independent life and
adjusting to life without them, redefining relationships with children
who are becoming adults, and redefining relationships with aging
parents.
At this age friendship plays a very important role. The most complex and
multifaceted friendships develop in people precisely at this
age. This is perhaps because at this age people
have an increased tendency toward introspection, and they begin to more deeply recognize
the many facets of their own personality and the personalities of other people.
People of this age often have to build a life within families
that are in a transitional state resulting from divorce
or remarriage. Among the difficulties associated with these events
are financial difficulties, a sense of depression and defeat,
changes in social life, and declining health.
This age is also a period of continuity and
change. Many people reassess their professional career
to see what they have managed to achieve and whether they should change their goals.
Such a reassessment often leads to changes in career (Craig, pp. 783 –
816).
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