5.3. The development of mental activity in the juvenile (game) period. Animal Games

In the ontogenesis of higher animals, as a rule, such a period as juvenile or playing is clearly distinguished . It can be clearly seen in the matriform calves, in which the maturation of behavior occurs during the games, and this happens long before the onset of puberty.

There are two basic concepts for explaining the nature of games and their significance in the ontogeny of behavioral reactions. The first concept belongs to G. Spencer. Within the framework of this concept, gaming activity is represented as the consumption of some energy, which in these conditions is excessive for the organism. This energy is not needed to perform the actions necessary for life support. The analogy in this case can be drawn with the so-called "actions idly" (see. Theme 2. Instinct). In this situation, some instinctive movements are also carried out in the absence of key stimuli. However, Lorenz himself pointed out a number of significant differences between gaming activity and "idle actions."

The second concept of gaming activity is formulated by K. Groos. The game is described by him as a kind of exercise of the animal in those areas of activity that are especially important for him, that is, as a kind of practice for the animal. Later, Lloyd-Morgan added that the advantage of training an animal during the game is that in this case it is possible to make mistakes. No error in action will be for the animal neither fatal for it, nor deadly, at the same time hereditarily fixed actions get the opportunity to improve.

It has now become clear that none of these hypotheses can fully describe the essence of game behavior. Both theories have both supporters and opponents. There is no agreement even on the issue of the importance of games for the formation of the behavior of an adult animal. As an argument confirming that games have no functional significance for this, scientists cite the fact that normal behavior can be formed even in the absence of exercises in the juvenile period of ontogenesis. For example, the concept of the Dutch zoopsychologist F. Boytendijk is based on the fact that gaming behavior brings to a human animal only in the emotional sphere at the time of the game, the instinctive behavior matures in any way as hereditarily fixed, exercises for this process are not needed. However, if you completely deprive the young of the opportunity to play in childhood, the psyche of an adult animal in most cases develops in a distorted form. For example, in guinea pigs, reactions to relatives become abnormal, and infantile traits are observed in sexual behavior. Coyote puppies in the absence of a playful behavior in the juvenile period grow aggressive. These features are especially pronounced in monkeys. It is noted that if they are deprived of the opportunity to play with their peers, in the adult state they are not able to communicate normally with sexual partners, and also perform maternal duties. It is important that sexual behavior is formed properly, if the partner in the game was another animal or person.

The ideas of another well-known ethologist G. Timbrock are also based on the idea of ​​the game as an autonomous, independent action. However, the scientist emphasizes that game behavior contributes to the fact that the number of individual behavior options in relation to the factors and stimuli of the external world increases. In the course of the game, elements of learning are carried out, various actions are improved, new systems are formed in the motor sphere of behavior.

The timbre indicates the differences of game activity from the “idle movements”. Gaming reactions are quite variable in their manifestations and depend on both external and internal factors. “Idle movements”, on the contrary, arise under the influence of powerful intrinsic motivation and always manifest themselves in a clear framework, i.e. absolutely unchanged. Timbre considers games to be a kind of instinctive actions with their motivational mechanism. Like instincts, game actions have a preparatory phase of search behavior and key stimuli. However, unlike instincts, game actions can be performed many times and often directed towards biologically neutral stimuli.

The Swiss scientist G. Hediger disagreed with the hypothesis of G. Tembrock. He believed that playing activity is optional and differs from instinct. To perform game movements, the animal has no special working bodies, as is the case with instinctive actions. To prove his assumptions, Hediger gave the results of experiments of the English physiologist V.R. Hess This scientist, introducing microelectrodes into the cat's brain, did not find in the animal any structures responsible for the gaming reactions.

HELL. Slonim suggested that, in the postnatal period, due to the effect on the animal's organism of external or internal stimuli that do not reach the threshold value, it develops instinctive reactions. Such activity is manifested in the form of gaming activities.

Most scientists still adhere to the views on gaming activity as an exercise in the sensitive and motor sphere, which helps the animal to prepare for adulthood. At the same time, feedback is of great importance. From the propulsion system constantly receives information about the success of the game behavior, it is adjusted. Russian psychologist D. B. Elkonin suggested that play activity creates obstacles to the early fixation of instinctive reactions in the finished form. This gives the animal the opportunity to navigate in a changeable environment, to “tune” the systems of the sense organs and motor systems. V.G. Thorpe sees play activity as an exercise in which an animal acquires useful skills and also expands information about the world. At the same time, according to Thorp, games related to the manipulation of different environmental objects are of particular importance.

The value of game behavior for the formation and formation of the behavior of an adult animal has been proven experimentally. G. Bingham in the 1920s. showed that for the normal mating of adult chimpanzees in childhood they need sex games. According to the observations of G. Harlow and S.J. Suomi other games in a similar way help the formation of the ability of monkeys to herd life.

Games have such value not only in monkeys, but also in other mammals. For example, it is noted that for the normal development of reproductive behavior in males of minks, it is necessary for animals to get an appropriate gaming experience with sexually mature females.

D. Nissen, together with K.L. Chau and J. Semmes conducted experiments on chimpanzee cubs, which were prevented from playing with objects at an early age. In such animals, a very poor coordination of the forelimb movements was noted in adulthood: chimpanzees could not accurately determine the place of the touch by hand, groped awkwardly and took objects. Normal babies willingly cling to a suitable servant to them, but the young ones in the experiment not only did not grab his clothes, but also did not stretch his hands towards him. An important element of chimpanzee behavior, the “scouring reaction”, was also not seen in such cubs.

According to the concept of K. Fabri, gaming activity simultaneously covers many functional areas and at the same time is constantly evolving. Fabry indicates that “play activity fills the main content of the process of behavior development in the juvenile period. The game is not represented by any particular category of behavior, but by a set of specifically juvenile manifestations of ordinary forms of behavior ... The game is the juvenile phase of the development of behavior in ontogenesis. ” ^[23]

Thus, in the juvenile period, the main way of forming behavior is games. However, those components of the ontogenesis of behavior that acted at earlier stages do not disappear. In the juvenile period, these factors are also preserved, but often in a modified form, merging with the game activity. The game is carried out on an instinctive basis, it has elements of learning, both optional and obligate. It is important to note that in the course of game behavior, it is not the adult behavioral acts themselves that are improved, but their individual components. In the process of playing activity, the animal accumulates individual experience, which will be put into practice much later.

Manipulation games are games with objects during which the objects of the environment are manipulated. K. Fabri described the manipulative games of predator mammals, by the example of which it can be traced what the game makes to the behavior of an adult animal.

The fox, up to the age of 12 days, makes manipulative movements with two forelimbs. They are very primitive, their jaws are not involved and there are no movements, which are carried out only by one front paw. Play activity manifests itself after their eyes have opened, at the age of about 16–23 days. After this, the intensive development of the motor sphere of behavior begins abruptly, the number of forms of manipulation increases, the variety of environmental objects with which the manipulation takes place increases. Foxes have “toys”, in the role of which various objects of the environment can play. Cubs are very active, mobile.

Fabri describes typical fox movements in this way: “prying an object with the nose (often followed by a tossing), holding the object partially or entirely on the weight in the teeth (in the first case the object rests with one end on the substrate), adhering the object with the mouth or nose on the forelegs extended forward, which lie motionless on the substrate (the object rests on them as on a stand), scooping up the object with its front paws to itself, pressing the object against the body, lying on its back, while simultaneously biting, pushing and moving over the surface of the body through the nose or forelimbs. In other cases, the object is pressed by the limbs to the substrate, and at the same time part of the object is pulled up or to the side with teeth. Digging movements and others are often produced. ” ^[24]

It is at this age that movements occur in the behavior of foxes associated with the manipulation of one limb (touching or pressing objects with one paw, stroking or touching objects with the edge of the brush simultaneously with leading or leading movements of the limb, attracting objects to themselves with a bent fingers or their simultaneous pinching with bent fingers or hooking them over the edges with claws).

Thus, the motor activity in the juvenile period is sharply enriched. Primary actions change, due to the completion of new actions on their basis. Qualitative changes in behavioral reactions develop due to the ripening of motor (motor) and sensory (sensitive) components of this primary manipulation. For example, at the beginning, in early ontogenesis, the nipple grasping with the lips develops, and in the juvenile period, the ability to take toys by mouth is formed on its basis. The primary functions of the oral apparatus and forelimbs in the course of the game movements expand and strengthen, that is, the game is a developing activity.

All the described patterns are manifested not only in the sphere of additional functions, but also in the field of the main functions of effector systems. This can be clearly seen in the development of food manipulation. The initial consumption of mother's milk requires the development of only one reaction from the young, sucking. However, over time, food objects change, the sucking reaction can no longer ensure their consumption. The animal must master other, new forms of action that would allow it to adapt to such changes in food. These movements are formed and improved in the course of manipulation games. For example, a fox begins to lick and then grab various objects with its jaws. Initially, the grasping movements of the jaws served him exclusively for games, and their participation in the process of eating food is associated with a change in the functions of a behavioral reaction.

Manipulation games are observed not only in canines, but also in other mammals. For example, in badger cubs, during a play activity, such actions as digging and carrying soil with the help of forelimbs, as well as raking of litter material, develop.

The manipulative actions of ungulates are extremely monotonous, because their motor apparatus is specialized primarily in supporting and motor functions, which minimizes the ability to manipulate. In hoofed animals there are no manipulations that are performed jointly by the jaws and limbs, or both of the forelimbs at the same time, but they develop manipulative actions performed by the head or forelimbs, such as pushing objects with the nose and striking.

Manipulation games in monkeys are developing very well. In these animals, the front limbs do not specialize in some functions, but perform many additional ones. That is why monkeys not only expand the range of possible manipulations, but they acquire new forms.

Game activity is typical. For example, in games of dingo puppies, actions associated with the pursuit of one individual by others predominate. This is in good agreement with the lifestyle of adult dingos, who hunt, driving their prey. The foxes often jump and hide when playing games. This is due to specific for this type of hunting techniques, for example, "mouseing".

Joint games. Often the game activity is carried out by several animals at the same time, i.e., it acquires the character of joint games. In the course of such games, in addition to the already mentioned functions, another very important function is performed - the formation of communication and group behavior of animals. Cooperative games are games in which there is a coordinated action of at least two partners. Group behavior is not only formed in the process of games, but also is hereditary, that is, it is instinctive. If an animal is isolated from other individuals from an early age, it will still show some elements of group behavior as adults.

Joint games can either be manipulative or non-manipulative, that is, they can be performed in the complete absence of foreign objects. The second option is most widely distributed. In joint games, features of the life of animals of this species are manifested. For example, in guinea pigs, games are very active, consist mainly in joint runs and jumps, in their games there are no methods of struggle, which appears in the ontogeny of behavior only when puberty begins. In another species of rodents - marmots - the opposite situation is observed. In the young of these animals, the favorite method of the game is joint struggle, pushing and flight as part of the game. However, in general, their games are not as mobile as those of guinea pigs.

Games in predatory mammals are very widespread. In Kunih, for example, they often acquire the character of a game hunt and subsequent struggle, while the pursued animal changes places with the pursuer. As a result, each individual gets the opportunity to acquire motor skills. In bear cubs, play activity is also manifested in the struggle; in addition, bear cubs swim and run races, and also hide from each other, “rehearsing” and practicing hunting techniques by harboring.

In the course of cooperative games, especially in the course of the game of struggle, the simplest hierarchical relations between individuals are often formed. Animals, as it were, acquire the skills of establishing such relationships, but they do not establish the direct relations of subordination themselves. For example, in canids, the first mutual attacks appear at the age of less than a month, and at 1–1.5 months, subordinate relations among puppies are already beginning to be established. At the same time, the cubs show aggressive behavior that does not bear a ritualized character - beating and jumping on a partner. In contrast to these signaling forms, ritualized aggression, which serves to establish a hierarchy in adult canine, appears in their behavior much later.

In joint manipulation games, animals do not communicate directly, because the joint actions of the young in this situation are directed not at each other, but at the objects of the environment. Such games are of great importance for the formation of animal communication, their ability to co-operate in changing the environment. Often, joint manipulation games have the character of so-called trophy games. The goal of such a game is to take possession of any item, taking it away from the partners in the game. В трофейных играх четко прослеживаются элементы демонстрационного поведения – демонстрируется обладание предметом, кроме того, происходят игровая борьба, сравнение сил, установление простых первичных иерархических отношений.

Большое значение в совместных играх имеет согласованность действий животных, которая достигается путем обоюдной сигнализации. Такая сигнализация является врожденной, это своего рода ключевой раздражитель для игровой деятельности, поэтому она понятна каждому животному. В качестве сигналов могут выступать специфические позы, движения или звуки, они выполняют стимулирующую роль. Например, у детенышей псовых есть своеобразный ритуал «приглашения к игре»: щенок припадает на передние конечности, совершает резкие прыжки в сторону, виляет хвостом, коротко лает визгливым голосом, дотрагивается до партнера передней лапой, при этом уголки его рта растянуты, уши направлены вперед, а на лбу появляются продольные складки. В игру включаются и сигналы «умиротворения», которые должны показать партнеру, что деятельность носит игровой характер. В противном случае, как иногда происходит у взрослых животных, игра может перейти в настоящую борьбу с тяжелыми повреждениями.

Игровое поведение в сфере общения также характеризуется сменой функций. Так, сигналы, стимулирующие партнера к игре, вне игровой ситуации имеют характер подлинной угрозы и сигнализируют об агрессивном поведении.

Игровая деятельность тесно связана с исследовательской активностью животного. Однако некоторые ученые, например Л. Хамильтон и Г. Марлер, считают, что сходство между игрой и исследовательским поведением является лишь внешним и не имеет существенного значения. Скорее всего, исследовательская деятельность в этот период сочетается с игровой, в ходе которой также происходит сбор информации об окружающей среде. В любой игре есть элемент исследовательской деятельности, но исследование у молодого животного далеко не всегда происходит в форме игры. Высшей формой ориентировочно-исследовательской деятельности являются манипуляционные игры с биологически нейтральными предметами.

Отмечено, что игровое манипулирование особенно интенсивно проявляется при предъявлении животному малознакомых или новых предметов. Именно в таких играх животное активно воздействует на объект. В играх, не имеющих манипуляционного характера, например в беге наперегонки, исследовательская активность проявляется в минимальной степени. При совместных трофейных играх можно говорить об общей исследовательской деятельности животных, что имеет большое значение для формирования общения.

В процессе индивидуального развития познавательная и исследовательская деятельность животного усложняется, т. е. функция этой формы поведения расширяется. После того как животное выходит из гнезда, его исследовательская активность направляется на качественно другие объекты, т. е. помимо расширения функций, происходит и их смена.

В различных играх развиваются общие физические способности животного, например глазомер, сила, ловкость, быстрота и другие качества. Кроме того, совершенствуются элементы поведенческих реакций, связанных с питанием, размножением и другими жизненно важными и биологически значимыми действиями, формируются навыки общения, устанавливается иерархия.

У обезьян можно наблюдать особый род манипуляционных игр. Этот тип игр характеризуется сложностью форм обращения животных с предметами, а подвижность при этом невысока. Животное манипулирует предметами, подолгу оставаясь на одном месте, причем действия его несут в основном деструктивный характер. Животное производит такие игровые действия в одиночестве. Такие игры, по мнению К. Фабри, следует относить к играм высшего ранга. Он пишет: «При подобных сложных играх с предметами совершенствуются высокодифференцированные и тонкие эффекторные способности (прежде всего пальцев) и развивается комплекс кожно-мышечной чувствительности и зрения. Познавательный аспект приобретает здесь особую значимость: животное обстоятельно и углубленно знакомится со свойствами предметных компонентов среды, причем особое значение приобретает исследование внутреннего строения объектов манипулирования в ходе их деструкции. Особое значение приобретает и то обстоятельство, что объектами манипулирования являются чаще всего „биологически нейтральные“ предметы. Благодаря этому существенно расширяется сфера получаемой информации: животное знакомится с весьма различными по своим свойствам компонентами среды и приобретает при этом большой запас разнообразных потенциально полезных „знаний“». ^[25]

Интересные данные получены при сопоставлении игрового поведения животных и детей. Так, в некоторых играх детей младшего возраста можно четко выявить определенные компоненты, соответствующие формам игровой активности детенышей высших животных. Однако уже на этой стадии онтогенеза в играх детей прослеживается социально обусловленное содержание. В более старшем возрасте ребенка эта особенность игр только усиливается, а игра становится специфичной для «детеныша человека». Так, российский зоопсихолог А.Н. Леонтьев писал, что «специфическое отличие игровой деятельности животных от игры, зачаточные формы которой мы впервые наблюдаем у детей предшкольного возраста, прежде всего в том, что игры последних представляют собой предметную деятельность. Последняя, составляя основу осознания ребенком мира человеческих предметов, определяет собой содержание игры ребенка». ^[26]

В играх детей, как и в играх животных, осуществляется сложная перестройка связей с факторами и стимулами внешней среды. В ходе онтогенеза изменяются и действия по отношению к этим стимулам. В обоих случаях при переходе от доигрового периода к игровому резко изменяется двигательная активность, особенно манипуляционная, меняются способы и объекты манипулирования. Однако становление и развитие игровой деятельности у детей имеет более сложный характер, чем у животных, даже высших.