8.1. Ethology as one of the areas of study of the psyche of animals

Ethology (from the Greek words ethos - character, character and logos - teaching) is the science that studies the biological basis of animal behavior, as well as its importance in the process of ontogenesis and phylogenesis for adaptation to the environment.

The subject of ethology is the direct acts of external activity - the complete, coordinated actions of animals, connected by some expediency. Ethologists are interested in embodied forms of animal behavior, unlike zoopsychologists, they avoid turning to the psyche.

Ethological studies are based primarily on observing the behavior of animals in the natural environment (i.e. in the so-called "wild nature"), as well as during various experiments and experiments in laboratory conditions. The results of such observations allow us to compile the so-called “ethograms”. Comparing the ethograms of animals belonging to different species, allows you to get closer to understanding the evolution of their behavior. Another important problem is the identification of the significance of the behavior of an animal for the process of its adaptation to habitat conditions.

The first works on the study of behavioral reactions of animals belong to the XVIII century, when D. White and Sh.Zh. Le Roy for the first time applied a scientific approach to the study of animal behavior. The founder of the study of animal behavior is Charles Darwin. With his theory of natural selection, he laid the foundation for an evolutionary perspective on animal behavior. In addition, Darwin conducted numerous observations on the behavior of animals, proving the evolutionary unity of man as a biological species with other animals. He first formulated the idea of ​​instinct, which was successfully used in classical ethology. Darwin’s work on studying animal behavior was continued by his follower G. Romany. His work The Mental Abilities of Animals (1882) was the first attempt to summarize data on comparative psychology. Romanee, however, did not always critically evaluate the facts, in particular, he attributed the animals reason and such feelings as jealousy. His results were refuted by the work of K. Morgan “Introduction to Comparative Psychology”, which later led to more careful control over the conduct of experiments and rigorous evaluation of the results.

The formation of ethology as an independent science dates back to the 1930s. XX century. Its origin is connected with the works of the Austrian scientist K. Lorenz and the Dutch scientist N. Tinbergen. Together with their teacher O. Heinroth, they founded an “objectivist” school. Their research was based on conducting observations in natural conditions. Mostly higher vertebrates were studied, and to a lesser extent, invertebrates. Scientists of this school have formulated an idea about the releasers (see 2.3, p. 34), about their meaning in behavioral acts. On the basis of these ideas, a theory of behavior was developed. Lorenz and Tinbergen paid special attention to studying the internal mechanisms of behavioral acts, which established the link between ethology and physiology. The studies of Lorenz and Tinbergen were prepared by the works of American scientists Whitman and Craig and the German scientist O. Heinrot.

Lorenz and Tinbergen emphasized the special importance of studying the behavior of animals in natural conditions. They tried to connect the functional (evolutionary) and mechanistic (causal) understanding of behavior. In this case, the scientific approach of Lorentz was distinguished by a philosophical orientation.

Along with Lorentz and Tinbergen, one of the founders of ethology as an independent science is considered to be the German scientist K. Frisch. His research is based on careful observation of animal behavior and is distinguished by a keen understanding of the biological functions of living organisms. The main issue of Frish’s scientific research was to find out how animals can obtain information about the environment. His research interests were related to the study of the behavior of honey bees and fish. Frish's most significant contribution to the development of ethology was his work on the communication of honeybees.

In 1973, K. Lorenz, N. Tinbergen and K. Frisch were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine.

Modern ethologists when studying the behavior of animals are guided by four questions that N. Tinbergen formulated in the article "Tasks and Methods of Ethology" (1963).

1. What are the reasons for an animal to perform a behavioral act?

2. How is the formation of a behavioral act in the process of individual development of an individual?

3. What is the significance of this behavioral act for the survival of an individual?

4. How was the evolutionary development of this behavioral act?

In general, it can be noted that ethology as a science about the behavior of animals involves a certain range of problems that must be solved in the study of each specific behavioral act. The goal of such research should not be a simple fixation of behavioral forms, but the identification of relationships between them and events in the body and outside it. These events precede this behavioral act, accompany it or follow it.

First of all, when studying the behavior of animals, it is extremely important to carry out the so-called "causal analysis." The essence of this analysis is to clarify the relationship between the studied behavioral reactions and those events that preceded them in time. At the same time, the temporary connections between these two consecutive events can be complex and diverse, only sometimes limited to the “cause-effect” scheme.

The causal analysis of behavior is complex and always consists of several stages. The preliminary stage consists in determining the place of the behavioral act in the ethological classification. After this place is determined, it is necessary to establish the actual connection between the conditions that preceded the behavioral act and the act itself. In the course of such an analysis, certain causal factors can be obtained . Such factors can be real environmental factors, variables that associate these factors with a specific behavioral act, or the interdependence of behavioral acts themselves. An example is the study of demonstration poses in birds. If these poses are combined with strikes and attacks on another individual of the same species, then these behavioral acts should be attributed to aggressive behavior. If a similar reaction occurs in a bird while viewing its reflection in a mirror, it becomes clear that the cause of behavioral acts are certain visual stimuli that need to be identified in further studies. The dependence of a given behavioral reaction on a certain time of year or time of day can also be established. In this case, you should pay attention to the establishment of internal factors of behavior. However, at the present stage of development of science, and ethology in particular, such a descriptive study of behavioral acts is not always sufficient. The analysis performed on all structural levels of the body will be optimal. It is necessary not only to observe the behavior, but also to note the functioning of the given receptor points, effectors and the nervous system itself. Such possibilities are provided by the physiology of higher nervous activity, comparative psychology and other sciences, which are in close contact with ethology.

Another range of problems of ethology is associated with the analysis of the causes of behavior. At the same time, attention is drawn to the ontogenetic aspect of the formation of a behavioral act, the influence exerted on its formation by environmental changes is noted. Of these questions, a third set of ethological problems arises - the identification of the consequences of behavioral acts. Such effects can occur both after a short time period, and after a long period of time. Thus, immediate effects can manifest themselves through changes in the body itself. In this case, this behavioral response may be repeated in the subsequent time. In addition, the effect of a behavioral act may be remote. For example, the formation of a certain behavioral reaction in a young animal may have a significant influence on its participation in the process of reproduction in the distant future. So, individuals with “incorrect” sexual imprinting often cannot find a sexual partner and, therefore, “drop out” from the reproduction process. Individual differences of individuals in behavioral reactions open wide opportunities for natural selection.