Lecture
To understand socio-political studies as an academic discipline, it is necessary to define its object and subject of research.
Broadly speaking, the object of a science is the part of the surrounding world toward which research interest is directed. The object of a science must always answer the question «what does the science study?». Different aspects of reality - physical, biological, economic, political, psychological and so on - can be the object of study of many sciences. Society is the object of socio-political research.
Society is a historically formed type of social organization, of social ties and relations between people. Society is regarded as an integrity, as a system consisting of the following elements:
Let us note that interaction between the elements of society takes place according to certain rules and norms within clearly defined limits.
Society is an object of study for history, economics, social philosophy, social psychology, demography, political science, sociology and other sciences.
History studies society in an evolutionary context, linking the connections of past, present and future. Economics analyzes the process (the activity and relations) of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods. Psychology provides knowledge that helps to understand human behaviour, character, and mentality among one's fellow human beings. Social psychology studies the patterns of people's behaviour in social groups, determined by the unconscious (individual and collective), the conscious, and social conditions. Social philosophy is interested in society from the standpoint of the correlation and interconnection, in people's activity, of the objective (material) and the subjective (conscious). Demography investigates the processes of reproduction, density, migration, and life expectancy of people, generations, and ethnic groups. Sociology studies the phenomena of people's interaction with one another, on the one hand, and the phenomena that arise from this interaction, on the other. Political science examines all social phenomena and processes from the standpoint of political power. There can be no politics without power, since it is power that serves as the means of its realization.
Sciences may share a common object of study, but they always study it from a different angle, from a different side. Thus, sciences often differ from one another not by their object but by their subject of study.
The subject of any academic discipline consists of the most essential relations, properties, and features of the object under study.
The distinctiveness of the course title "Socio-political studies" lies in the fact that attention is focused on the social and political spheres of society, which are, first and foremost, the subject of research of sociology and political science, respectively. Etymologically, the term "sociology" derives from the Latin word societas (society) and the Greek word logos (science, knowledge). That is, sociology is the science of society. The term "sociology" was first used by the French scholar Auguste Comte (1798-1857) in his work "Course of Positive Philosophy" (1842). Initially, A. Comte called sociology social physics. In his view, this science was to borrow objectivity, verifiability, and evidentiary rigor from the natural sciences. Sociology, as understood by A. Comte, was identified with social science as a whole.
The term "politics" was introduced into scholarly use by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC), whereas political science began to take shape as an independent scholarly discipline only in the second half of the 19th century. The term "political science" was formed from two Greek words: politike (state or public affairs) and logos (teaching, word). That is, political science is the science of governing the state.
Thus, the course "Socio-political studies" represents a symbiosis of sociological and political-science knowledge in their unity and interconnection. Accordingly, the subject of research of socio-political studies consists of the patterns governing the formation and development of the social and political spheres of society. These patterns are studied through the functioning and development of the social and political spheres of society as an integral system in their unity and interconnection. Thus, socio-political studies constitute a system of knowledge about society and politics, and about the organization of socio-political relations and processes.
The complexity of studying the categorical apparatus of socio-political research stems from the fact that the course simultaneously employs categories from both sociology and political science. Three groups can conditionally be distinguished: 1) general sociological categories; 2) general political-science categories; 3) categories of socio-political research (consensus-integrative categories).
1. General sociological categories are concepts that reflect certain properties of society and its components as an integral social system.
The study of any process occurring in society requires clarifying the essence of society itself, of the process under study, and of the phenomena associated with that process. This is done with the help of such basic categories as "social communities", "social groups", "social actions", "social needs", "social norms", "social values", "social interests", "personality", "social status", "social role", "stratification", "socialization", and others.
2. The specificity of the general categories of political science is that they reveal different aspects of the process of exercising power in society. The central categories of political science are «politics», «political power», «subject and object of politics», «political system», «political regime», «political institution», «political party», «the state», «political socialization», «political consciousness», «political culture», «legitimacy» and others.
3. The categories of socio-political studies (consensus-integrative in nature) examine the principles of interaction between the social and political spheres of society's life. These are «socio-political knowledge», «socio-political processes», «socio-political conflicts», «socio-political activity», «socio-political technologies», «socio-political dichotomy», «socio-political trends», and the like. It should be noted that the system of socio-political categories is in a state of development, being constantly enriched and updated both at the international and domestic levels.
Socio-political studies as an academic discipline has diverse connections with the life of contemporary society and performs a number of important functions.
1. The cognitive (epistemological) function of socio-political studies is connected with identifying the most important socio-political problems and contradictions in society, with an adequate reflection of socio-political reality, and with analysis of the trends and patterns of development. This function ensures the acquisition, accumulation, and systematization of knowledge about society and politics, their components, the forms and mechanisms of functioning and development of social relations, and the creation of theories and concepts.
2. The methodological function consists in developing the tools for analyzing socio-political phenomena and processes. The result of such a search is a system of rules and standards for constructing socio-political theory and models for organizing practical socio-political activity. Understanding the general patterns of society will help other social sciences solve their specific tasks.
3. The instrumental function manifests itself in the development of a number of recommendations for improving all aspects of socio-political practice. Making an effective decision requires a clear analysis of the problem situation, determining the degree of influence of the participants in socio-political events, examining possible risks and consequences of the situation, and conducting monitoring research. Knowledge from socio-political studies can be used to develop practical recommendations on ways to improve the effectiveness of managing socio-political processes and socio-political events.
4. The predictive function involves determining the near- and long-term prospects for the socio-political development of society, developing short-term, medium-term, and long-term forecasts, and modeling future socio-political processes. A forecast is always probabilistic in nature. It relies on identifying the factor whose influence on the predicted phenomenon is decisive
5. The regulatory function ensures the participation and influence of individuals, social groups, and institutions on the socio-political process in society, and the development of clear guidelines, norms, and rules within constantly changing socio-political systems.
6. The worldview function serves as the basis for forming in a person an integral picture of the world. It objectively participates in the socio-political life of society and, through its research, contributes to the progress of public consciousness and of society.
3. Methodology of socio-political research.
Research methods (from the Greek méthodos - a path of inquiry, of knowing) are techniques and means of achieving specific results in practical and cognitive activity. Depending on the specific research objective, socio-political studies employ various techniques and means of analysis. Methods can conditionally be divided into general theoretical and specific empirical approaches to the study of socio-political objects.
The first group of general theoretical methods for studying socio-political objects includes the historical, institutional, structural-functional, systemic, psychological, comparative, socio-political, and other methods.
1. The historical method is based on studying socio-political phenomena in their development over time. It makes it possible to analyze phenomena that recur repeatedly throughout history and to identify patterns of development.
2. The institutional method studies the principles of activity of social and political institutions: the state, its bodies, political parties, public organizations, and social groups. The analysis is based on established and socially entrenched formal and informal rules of decision-making.
3. The structural-functional method treats society as a stable, unified, cohesive system whose elements clearly perform their functional duties. The socio-political system appears as a unity, while functions are what contributes to preserving the socio-political system as a whole. The behavior of the individual and the group is determined by normative conceptions and values, which act as the supreme regulator of the socio-political process.
4. The systemic method focuses attention on socio-political integrity and the nature of its relationships with the external environment. It is applied in the study of complex, self-organizing objects, which include socio-political systems, institutions, and organizations. The analysis focuses mainly on identifying the diversity of connections and relations existing both within the state (system) and in its relationships with the external environment (other institutions).
5. The psychological method is oriented toward studying the subjective mechanisms of people's socio-political behavior, their individual qualities and character traits, as well as toward clarifying the typical mechanisms of psychological motivation and the role of subconscious factors in life.
6. The comparative method. In order to understand the true essence of the world, it is necessary to identify the common features and specific developmental characteristics of the social, economic, and historical phenomena of different societies and states. There are several types of comparative research: cross-national comparisons, which focus on comparing one state with another; binary analysis, based on comparing two, most often similar, states; and cross-cultural and cross-institutional comparisons, aimed respectively at comparing national cultures and institutions.
7. The socio-political method focuses on studying the dependence of individuals' political behaviour on their inclusion in social groups, as well as on examining the psychological characteristics of collective entities (nations, classes, social groups, etc.).
The second group of concrete empirical methods for studying socio-political objects includes population surveys, document analysis, experiment, observation, gaming methods, mathematical modelling, and others. This level of sociological knowledge is concerned with the collection, description, classification, and interpretation of specific facts. Empirical sociology deals with facts, frequencies, percentages, numerical indicators, and mathematical indices, reflecting socio-political reality in quantitative terms. Most often, the direct object of empirical research is a person or a social group as the bearer of primary social information.
1. A survey is the most widespread method of obtaining information, in which respondents (the people being surveyed) are asked, either in written or oral form, specially selected questions and are asked to answer them. This method provides rich factual material for identifying various kinds of patterns, and careful analysis makes it possible to produce socio-political forecasts.
There are two types of survey:
Questionnaire survey - the respondent fills out the questionnaire form themselves, either in the presence of an interviewer or without one (these may be individual or group, in-person or remote).
Interviewing - involves direct communication between the interviewer and the respondents. The interviewer asks the questions themselves and records the answers. In terms of its form, it may be direct (focus groups) or indirect (for example, by telephone, or by mailing out the questionnaire).
Depending on the source of information, a distinction is made between:
1. Mass surveys. The source of information is representatives of large social groups (ethnic, religious, professional, and others).
2. Specialized (expert) surveys. The main source of information is competent individuals (experts) who possess the professional and theoretical knowledge and life experience necessary for the researcher, enabling them to draw authoritative conclusions.
2. Document analysis is a method of collecting information, the source of which can be any information fixed in a printed or handwritten text, on magnetic tape, or on photographic or motion-picture film. In sociology, a document is defined as an object specially created by a person for the purpose of transmitting or storing information. In terms of their form of fixation, documents can be written, iconographic, or phonetic. Two main types of document analysis are distinguished:
Traditional analysis is the interpretation of a document's content, its exegesis. It is based on the mechanism of textual understanding. Traditional analysis makes it possible to encompass the deep, hidden aspects of a document's content. The weak point of this method is its subjectivity.
Formalized analysis is a quantitative method of analysing and evaluating documents (content analysis). The study of documents includes the analysis of official materials, transcripts, various kinds of reports, diaries, and memoirs. Films, photographic documents, and posters may also be of considerable interest. The principle of this method comes down to finding such features, traits, and properties of a document (for example, the frequency of use of certain terms) that are easily counted and that would necessarily reflect certain essential aspects of the content. The content then becomes measurable, accessible to precise computational operations. The results of the analysis become sufficiently objective.
3. Experiment is a method of collecting and analyzing empirical data for the purpose of testing hypotheses about causal relationships between phenomena. Depending on the specific nature of the task set, a distinction is made between research experiments and practical experiments. In the course of a research experiment, a hypothesis is tested, yielding new data of a scientific nature. In the course of a practical experiment, data is obtained for the purpose of providing practical recommendations in one field or another.
The division of experiments into research and practical ones is conditional, since a practical experiment often makes it possible to obtain new scientific information, while a scientific experiment ends with practical recommendations in one or another sphere of social life.
4. Observation in sociological research is a method of collecting primary information about the object being studied through direct perception and the direct recording of all facts relating to the object under study. Observation is rarely the primary method of collecting social information. Depending on the degree of the observer's participation in the social situation being studied, a distinction is made between:
Non-participant (external) observation. The researcher or his assistants are located outside the object being studied. They observe from the sidelines the processes taking place, do not interfere in their course, and do not ask any questions - they simply record the course of the events that occur.
Participant observation, in which the observer, to one degree or another, is directly included in the process being studied, is in contact with the people being observed, and takes part in their activities.
5. The use of game-based methods makes it possible to simulate the development of a particular socio-political phenomenon (negotiations, conflicts, and so on). This allows researchers to reveal the internal mechanisms of the phenomenon under study and to issue recommendations for decision-making.
6. The method of mathematical modelling consists in studying social and political processes and phenomena through the development and study of models. For example, by purpose, one can distinguish measuring, descriptive, explanatory and predictive models. Today, in connection with the improvement of software technologies, the modelling of socio-political macro- and micro-processes has become one of the primary directions in the development of the methodology of socio-political research.
The clients of socio-political research are commercial structures, political parties, and state and public organizations. Empirical research, relying on a special methodology and technique - a set of rules and procedures that make the data obtained reliable and the conclusions genuinely scientific.
Socio-political knowledge, as the present day shows, is not a mono-conceptual but a poly-conceptual system of knowledge. Its development is connected with the constant emergence, substantiation, and expansion of the influence of some theories, and the refutation and decline of others, with their rivalry and succession. Let us consider contemporary concepts of socio-political knowledge.
1. The structural-functional conception. The core ideas of structural functionalism were formulated by T. Parsons and R. Merton. They based their work on the ideas of H. Spencer, E. Durkheim, and others. Society is a single organism made up of elements that perform particular functions. These functions are aimed at ensuring the integrity and stability of society.
R. Merton believed that the elements of a social system do not necessarily perform functions that are positive for the system as a whole — that is, they can also be harmful to the system. Moreover, not all functions of a system's elements are obvious. Thus, R. Merton introduced the concept of dysfunction and of hidden (latent) functions.
According to T. Parsons, human action is a complex system whose subsystems are the organism (the biological system), the personality (the psychical system), the social system (the normative system), and culture (traditions). The scholar's primary interest lay in the problems of order, equilibrium, and orderliness of the social system.
2. The social-conflict conception (R. Dahrendorf, L. Coser, K. Boulding) views society as a system in which conflicts are constantly occurring on economic, class, political, national, religious, and other grounds. It is precisely these conflicts that drive society toward social transformation.
The main tenets of the conflict approach:
Within the conflict approach there are 2 currents:
1. Its representatives are L. Coser and K. Boulding. The cause of conflict is scarcity and the struggle over resources. It is characteristic of human beings to use violent methods in pursuing their goals. Conflict is a natural state of society. Thanks to conflict, the system becomes stable.
2. Its representative is R. Dahrendorf. Conflict leads to the collapse of old systems and the emergence of new ones. The main cause of conflict is the uneven distribution of authority or power.
3. The conception of symbolic interactionism (or interaction theory): G. Mead, C. Cooley.
As they interact, individuals constantly define and redefine the meaning of one another's actions depending on how the situation develops, and orient their subsequent actions toward these meanings. Society is not a fixed set of given social norms, nor a static system of behaviour, but a kaleidoscopic, interactive process (from the English "interaction").
The main tenets of interactionism:
• People live and act not in a world of objects, but in a world of symbols.
• Symbols arise in the course of social interaction.
• The meaning of symbols can change on the basis of interaction processes.
• The success of interaction depends on people's ability to correctly perceive the symbols coming from others, to decode (interpret) them, and to reproduce them.
Symbol is a thing that has meaning.
Social life is possible because certain groups of people share a system of common symbols. In other symbolic systems, interaction is difficult.
4. J. Moreno's role concept.
From his point of view, life is theater.
• Like actors, members of society occupy certain positions and statuses in society.
• Actors adhere to a script, while a person adheres to written and unwritten norms.
• Actors obey the director, while members of society obey those who hold status and power.
• An actor reacts to a partner's role, while people, in relation to one another, adjust their own behavior.
• Actors react to the audience, while members of society react to other groups, primarily to the reference group.
• An actor performs a role depending on talent, while a person does so depending on knowledge of the role, its mastery, the ability to understand others and to put oneself in their position, as well as under the influence of the "self-image," an understanding of oneself, and skill in performing these roles.
5. The exchange concept: P. Blau, G. Homans.
The social world is a market where people enter into a complex network of exchange operations. People possess certain resources that can be exchanged for other resources.
People calculate the value of their own resources and the value of the resources they might obtain in return. Based on these calculations they exchange resources, and the system of such exchanges underlies the structure of society. Conflict is explained by the fact that one of the parties to an exchange has come to regard the agreement as unfavorable to itself.
Axioms of exchange theory:
• The more a human action is rewarded, the higher the probability that this action will be repeated.
• If receiving a reward for certain types of behavior depends on certain conditions, a person will strive to reproduce those conditions.
• If the reward is great, a person is willing to expend more effort to obtain it.
• When a person's need for a reward approaches satiation, that type of activity becomes less attractive.
6. I. Prigogine's synergetic concept
Society, as an open, complexly organized system, is subject to random perturbations that lead to damage to its stability, the destruction of structure, and a transition to a necessary, qualitatively new state. Socio-political instability and chaos in social institutions and in society are not regarded as something destructive and negative, because these fluctuations give rise to variability and a multiplicity of choices for development. This is called a self-organizing structure.
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