Lecture
Any organization for the implementation of effective action sets goals that management practice calls management. Responsible for solving the problems of the organization, is the head. The main content of its activities being implemented through the decision of management tasks at all stages of management functions . The solution of control problems is based on the establishment of complex relations of a multilevel order between their various elements. They may be non-identical tasks related to the category of economic, technical, technological, psychological, socio-psychological and other.
Before turning to the psychological analysis of solving managerial problems, let us turn to the basic information relating to the psychology of solving problems that are not directly related to the managerial category. What is the problem in the psychological sense of the word? In psychology, a task is usually understood as a goal given in certain conditions (according to AN Leontiev), which is achieved by a certain transformation of these conditions. The task includes : requirements ( goal ), conditions ( known ) and sought ( unknown ), which is formulated in the question. When the term " task " is used, the problem is meant, meaning the object of thinking, for the solution of which thinking is considered as a special activity.
In psychology, the term "problem solving" is used in three different senses:
1) decision as a plan (method, method) of the task;
2) decision as a process the implementation of the requirements of the task, as the process of implementing the decision plan;
3) solution as a result implementation of the decision plan.
When they talk about solving a problem, I mean the procedure for developing a solution to a problem situation. You can talk about the general patterns inherent in human thinking, regardless of the characteristics of mental operations. When tasks are solved, at the same time the most general patterns of thinking are manifested.
Management tasks can be classified as creative tasks and be considered not only as a solution development, but also as a development of the problem itself. When analyzing tasks, it should be borne in mind that every solution is implemented in the aspect that needs to be solved.
As for thinking, it never returns to the exact point at which it was already once.
The thought process of solving problems, including managerial ones, is a complex multi-level and multifunctional system.
Anticipation and forecasting in thinking is also a study of goal-setting in this activity. A goal, or a task, is anticipation of a future, but not yet achieved result, and in this sense, thinking as prediction is always goal-setting, although it cannot be reduced to it entirely.
The objective anticipation of solving problems is the internal orientation of the subject, as a result of which the finding of the necessary solution is ensured.
A necessary prerequisite for successful problem solving is reflection, i.e. awareness of significant aspects, as well as attempts to include them in certain relationships. The success of the search for solving problems is directly dependent on the nature of the reflexive-personal assessment of the actual importance of the tasks.
In the process of solving managerial tasks, intellectual and personal capabilities of managers are realized . There are the most typical styles of thinking of leaders , despite the great diversity of them (according to F. Payne and Anderson):
1) System style , in which the emphasis is on determining the method of solving the problem (problem). In such a situation, an attempt is made to break down the problem into its individual components.
2 ) Intuitive style , characterized by a high degree of awareness of the problem as a whole and the desire to use various methods of solving the problem.
3) Receptive style , which is characterized by focusing on specific details of the problem.
4) Perceptual style in which the aspirations to establish relationships between the various parts of the problem manifest themselves.
Management tasks have their own characteristics. Their specificity is as follows:
a) tasks may contain undefined, and in some cases, conflicting conditions;
b) the task may lack sufficient information on possible means of its solution;
c) there are no clear decision algorithms;
d) problems are often solved under time pressure.
There are three main types of management tasks :
1 Tasks of the conceptual plan (strategic tasks related to long-term planning, forecasting).
2 Tasks related to the technical and technological side of the functioning of production (the creation and introduction of new technology, technology, etc.).
3 Tasks related to the action of the human factor (personnel issues, consideration of the socio-psychological climate in groups, etc.).
There is a paradox between: a) an objective need to ensure great rigor and scientific validity of management theory and b) the preservation of personal, intuitive beginnings in the decision-making process.
Classification of management tasks .
When considering management tasks, it is necessary to highlight certain criteria by which they can be classified. According to the empirical data obtained in our work with the leaders of various management units, it has become; It is possible to use the following criteria in evaluating management tasks.
one. Content criterion . According to this criterion , all managerial tasks can be divided into significant minor ones .
2 The criterion for the feasibility of tasks based on which all management tasks can be divided into solvable and unsolvable .
3 The criterion of knowledge of the leader of the tasks . According to this criterion, all management tasks are divided into those falling within the remit of managers and outside this remit.
four. The criterion of the degree of functional costs. In accordance with it, all management tasks are divided into easy and difficult ones .
The "easy" tasks are current production tasks, for example, monitoring compliance with safety regulations. The “difficult” category includes tasks of strategic planning, forecasting, modeling, etc. In solving managerial problems, each manager uses a system of subjective assessments. regarding the decision. In addition, each manager has a certain system of ideas about the hierarchy of tasks that need to be addressed.
In accordance with the established ideas about the task, the manager evaluates:
one) what tasks need to be solved without fail;
2) which in exceptional cases can not decide;
3) which tasks can be completely ignored.
Tasks essentially determine the actual amount of management activity.
In this paper, we proceeded from the position of the existence of two types the importance of managerial tasks: extremely significant and insignificant (tasks of secondary importance).
In terms of content, meaningful tasks can turn into their opposite, if they cannot be solved at the right time. During the pre-perestroika period, for example, the tasks of implementing the decisions of the Plenary Meetings of the Central Committee of the CPSU were extremely important for the head of the organization. At the present time, when the CPSU did not become, these tasks have completely disappeared.
In the conditions of modern production, the solution of some managerial tasks is associated with a certain degree of regulation, for example, tasks related to planning. But under the same conditions, a certain amount of uncertainty persists, for example, in matters of productivity growth, etc.
For the head of any organization, the most important thing is to clearly establish the degree of importance of management tasks. The most urgent tasks are chosen for the first priority. Such a strategy is appropriate and necessary.
However, the practice of management activity testifies that this strategy is not always chosen by managers. Often, managers do not divide management tasks into two categories: significant and insignificant. This approach leads to the fact that managers take on the solution of many tasks, but in fact can not implement them all. The presence of these two opposing, but complementary tendencies in management activities boil down to the fact that:
a) managers consider all tasks related to the operation of production significant;
b) managers allocate for the decision only a part of administrative tasks, the most important and significant.
For each level of management there are various areas of urgent tasks, including problems of different degrees of complexity. It is significant that with the change in the level of leadership, the ratio of actual and irrelevant problems inevitably changes.
Many management tasks have co-ordinated tasks. To solve a difficult task, it is often necessary to solve a significant number of other problems. These include, for example, the solution of personnel issues reorganization of the enterprise, economic and legal problems.
Management practice shows that problems to be solved can often mutually exclude each other . For example, availability; necessary raw materials, but the lack of labor resources or their irrational use does not allow to fulfill the managerial task of producing the planned volume of output.
In management activities there are various kinds of difficulties: objective and subjective. The presence of difficulties in management practice does not always enable the manager to choose the right strategy for solving the problem, which often leads to mistakes in decision making.
What is the reason for the wrong choice of problem solving strategy? As a rule, this is due to an underestimation or, conversely, with an overestimation of the complexity of the tasks being solved. In such situations, the manager cannot correctly measure the managerial capacity for an optimal solution. In addition, there may be an incorrect assessment of the consequences of their decisions.
To successfully solve a managerial task, it is necessary to create conditions. Difficulties in solving managerial problems are determined by two types:
one) beyond the competence of the head (for example, a large number of unplanned calls to other authorities, the problem of relationships with the superiors, each of which gives its tasks, etc.);
2) associated with the objective circumstances of the production itself, for example, the presence of high staff turnover, the remoteness of the objects of management, the inconsistency of legislation, as well as instructions and requirements of higher authorities, etc.
Each leader has to solve problems of various difficulties. There are problems that are relevant to any level of management organizations. But with the change in the level of leadership, the ratio of actual and irrelevant problems changes.
The immediate task of each manager is to assess any managerial situation. In case the manager overestimates or underestimates the managerial situation and the tasks connected with it, choosing the right strategy for solving these tasks will depend on the adequacy of the assessment of the whole situation. The consequence of an incorrect assessment of the management situation may be that some of the important tasks will fall out of the field of view of the manager.
Our state-owned enterprises just a few years ago, solving complex management tasks, faced situations that forced their managers to solve problems that were completely unusual for these enterprises.
Methods for solving management problems.
In the process of solving managerial problems, the brainstorming method is often used. This method has proven itself to be positive. Usually the brainstorming method is managed by a specialist who organizes the rationalization process in many industries. He is called a moderator. The essence of this method is to generate ideas by the participants of the creative group. Experts decide on the problem. They get acquainted with the ideas put forward during the brainstorming and choose those that, from their point of view, are worth implementing. Usually about 10% of the ideas put forward are selected, and the rest are discarded. The choice of one idea is connected with the discussion by its authorities, who have their own opinion on this issue. The process of discussing the problem by the group, summarizing the ideas put forward and analyzing them by experts stretches over time. There are various options for brainstorming.
The method of synectic allows not to stretch the decision making for a long time. It differs from the "brainstorming" method of organizing the work of the creative team, assembled to solve a specific problem. The procedure for applying this method consists of four phases of work. In the first phase, all the participants in the creative team consider the problem and try to find ways to solve it. They fix their decision on forms (in workbooks). On the second, they elect their leader, who offers a solution to the problem in sufficiently detailed form. In the third phase, each participant sets out his thoughts on a possible way to solve the problem. After this, a creative discussion takes place, which is directed by the leader.
During the discussion, the group members reach agreement on different points of view and develop a model for solving the problem. When evaluating various alternatives, if the discussion does not lead to the formulation of a general approach to solving a managerial problem, various methods of agreement are used. At the last, fourth phase, the ideas and solutions put forward by the creative group are analyzed by a group of invited experts for this work.
Diary method . If the problem to be solved is so complex that for its solution it requires considerable creative effort over a long period of time, then a special group of experts is created. Team members are allowed to work collectively as well as separately. Each member of the group is given a notebook in which they record daily observations and draw conclusions about a possible solution to the problem. Such work is carried out for one or two weeks. Its results are discussed in a joint discussion. If a manager wants to personally meet each of the diaries, he collects them to summarize and formulate the topics for discussion.
Gordon Method . Some management experts believe that brainstorming stimulates the activity of creative team members until the group completes the formation of a problem-solving model. After that, the activity of the participants decreases. The author of this method, Gordon, believes that there is no need to set a specific task for the group, for example, how to increase labor productivity. Only a general problem should be outlined, and the material collected during the discussion will allow experts to draw more specific conclusions.
Delfa method . This method is used when a number of alternatives are put forward and justified when solving a problem, or when alternatives are specified by the conditions of the problem. For example, the task is to distribute the award for performing a specific task. In this case, several considerations were put forward:
a) all equally;
b) all equal percentage of salary;
c) depending on the position;
d) taking into account the needs of the employee;
e) more to the one who has contributed more to the work;
e) based on the length of service;
g) taking into account the complexity of the work performed.
When discussing at a general meeting, there was no consensus on possible bonuses. After that, they instructed the labor collective to find a way to solve this problem. The decision must be made taking into account all given opinions. For this, the Delphi method was used. The application of this method consists of three main stages.
one. Each participant evaluates each alternative according to the degree of subjective preference in a 10-point rating system. The highest score is 1 (one), not 10. The remaining alternatives are assigned points in a hierarchical sequence. Then for all alternatives and calculated the average value.
2 Participants compare their scores with averages and, in a 10-point system, indicate the extent to which they coincide. Then the second average value is calculated.
3 The two average values for each alternative are multiplied and the results determine the most preferred alternative, that is, one of the seven suggested values regarding the distribution of the premium. This will be the lowest-value alternative. For calculations, a matrix of values is used.
Method "635". This method meets certain requirements:
a) increased orientation of bonds;
b) more limited freedom of action that takes place at several stages, resulting in a higher concreteness in the elaboration of ideas. Using the "635" method, solutions are developed gradually over several stages.
The method is implemented as follows. The main ideas come in turn to the members of the group. Each of them adds a few more thoughts about a possible solution to the problem. Usually about 6 people take part in the group. Каждому участнику творческой группы раздаются специальные бланки, где отражаются все 18 идей (6 человек х 3 идеи). После прохождения через всех участников бланки содержат уже 108 идей. Для письменного представления основных и дополнительных идей, которые прорабатываются индивидуально каждым участником, требуется не так уж много времени - примерно 30 минут. Настоящий метод применяется при следующих условиях:
• обеспечивается неоднородность состава группы;
• проблемы формулируются до начала работы группы;
• проблемы сообщаются за 2-3 дня до начала работы;
• запрещается устный обмен информацией между участниками творческой группы.
The method can be combined with other methods, such as brainstorming. Ideas can be decorated in the form of drawings, if there is such a need. This method can be applied in conditions of territorial disunity.
Method of voting pro-con. Настоящий метод используется для обсуждения с помощью экспертов определенных концепций или элементов решения задачи управления, полученных при помощи метода дневников или метода "635". При применении данного метода формируется группа из 15-20 человек. Каждый из них представляет в схематическом виде возможные варианты решения задачи, чтобы все члены группы могли наглядно их увидеть. Из нескольких вариантов выбираются некоторые, оцениваемые в балльной системе членами экспертной группы (жюри). К каждому обсуждаемому варианту прикрепляют по два представителя концепции "за" (т. е. защитников) и два представителя "против" (отвергающих данный вариант). Все представители концепции "за" и "против" получают слово и предлагают свои аргументы, которые фиксируются экспертами на специальном табло доводов для наглядности. Продолжительность первого этапа работы - 10-15 минут. На втором этапе представители концепций меняются местами и приводят дополнительные доводы "за" и '"против" рассматриваемых вариантов, которые также фиксируются на табло. На третьем этапе все доводы обсуждаются экспертами и, если это необходимо, дополняются новыми. После такогообсуждения эксперты распределяются на подгруппы по 4-6 человек для дальнейшего совершенствования предложенных вариантов. Подгруппы стремятся усовершенствовать варианты решения разными методами: "мозгового штурма", "635" или дневников.
Метод утопических игр . Настоящий метод предполагает активное участие каждого члена творческой группы в решении поставленной проблемы. Сущность его заключается в том, что высказываются различные идеи, которые в данное время не могут быть реализованы, кроме того, они не могут также быть в предлагаемой форме или в данном содержании идеи. Это - высказанные нереалистичные (утопические) утверждения в виде некоторых идей. Оцениваются они так, что каждый участник не испытывает психологических барьеров в общении со своими коллегами по творческой группе. При этом стимулируется фантазия всех её членов. Основными приемами этого метода являются следующие:
§ члены группы не ориентируются на действие конкретной организации, особенности ее функционирования и т. п.;
§ also does not take into account the planning procedure in this organization;
§ decisions made earlier (targets, directives, etc.) do not affect the work of the creative team.
The only requirement that members of a group must follow is a perspective requirement. The whole group is divided into smaller subgroups of 4-6 people and selects its moderator. The time to submit ideas is 20 minutes. Each idea is presented in visual form. All ideas are divided into two broad categories: the "utopias" model and the "not utopias" model. The predictions of the desired future fall into the "utopias" model, and the forecasts of an undesirable future fall into the "not utopias" model. The model of "utopias" is complemented by factors hindering the implementation of utopian ideas, as well as causing undesirable trends.
All ideas expressed are evaluated using a preference matrix.
Delbeck Method . This method is used to solve problems that require knowledge in various fields; in collecting information and monitoring content, making forecasts, as well as in identifying the interconnectedness of complex tasks. This method involves the active creative approach of all members of the group in solving problems. The initial task in the form of a change in the organized structure is to bridge the gap between the desired and the actual side.
This method contains several steps:
a) the definition of the problem;
b) identification of factors contributing to and hindering the implementation of this goal, as well as the establishment of a relationship between them;
c) finding solutions to the problem and choosing the best option.
The method assumes the following scheme order:
§ Each member of the group, independently of the others, very briefly describes this particular management situation. It takes 15 minutes;
§ the most characteristic offers are read out; the moderator visually fixes them;
§ using questions and answers, the moderator corrects errors and inaccuracies in the wording of group members;
§ fix the number of identical sentences;
§ the number of different sentences is reduced to a minimum or to zero;
§ the moderator synthesizes sentences expressing the opinion of the group and highlights the actual situation;
§ each member of the group briefly describes the desired, i.e. achievable, state of affairs;
§ a discussion is held within 20 minutes. Its purpose is a sentence that evaluates the cash situation;
§ after discussion, each member of the group offers three proposals, ranking them in order of importance;
§ Achievable goal is formulated in the form of a proposal with which most of the participants agree.
§ compiled a list of factors that impede the achievement of the goal;
§ identifies factors contributing to the achievement of the goal;
§ a plan for the implementation of organizational change.
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Psychology of management
Terms: Psychology of management