Lecture
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and the noble estate, which retains its monopoly on political power. In this struggle, the bourgeoisie relies on the support of the mass stratum of the petty bourgeoisie and the peasantry, suffering under the growth of royal taxes. In most European countries, this political struggle spills over into bourgeois political revolutions. The first of these were the revolutions in Holland (16th century) and England (17th century).
Some peculiarities of Russian feudalism have already been mentioned in the description of the formation of the feudal mode of production. Feudalism in Russia began to form later than in Western Europe. In the 9th–10th centuries, an early class society took shape in Rus (the absence of serfdom, small-scale patriarchal slavery, with the main form of exploitation being the princes' collection of irregular tribute — polyudye), and in the 10th–12th centuries the process of its feudalization began (the growth of various categories of personally dependent peasants — zakupy, kholopy, etc., and the development of church and boyar landholding in the form of the votchina). In terms of the level of economic relations, Rus was rapidly approaching early feudal Europe. From the end of the 11th century, feudal fragmentation developed, and the 12th–13th centuries were marked by the growth of commodity production, crafts, and cities, which brought the level of economic development of Rus closer to that of European countries. This socioeconomic dynamic of Rus was interrupted in the mid-13th century by the Mongol invasion. There was a sharp decline in urban crafts and monetary circulation, a drop in the role of cities, and the disruption of economic and political ties with Western Europe. The transition from feudal fragmentation to the formation of a centralized state began only in the second half of the 15th century, and it did not rest on the formation of a unified national market, the growth of the bourgeoisie, and so on, but grew instead out of military unification in the struggle against the Golden Horde's yoke. The process of the formation of serf dependence proceeded slowly — while in many European countries it was already decomposing, in Rus it only acquired its finished forms at the end of the 16th century. In the 15th–16th centuries there was a shift in feudal landholding relations from the votchina (hereditary estate) to the pomestie — not a hereditary but a personal holding granted in return for service. The equalization of the status of the pomestie with that of the votchina occurred only in the mid-17th to early 18th century. The dominant class long retained the features of a military-service estate, whose relations with the monarch were built not so much on the principles of vassalage as on the principles of state service. The formation of a centralized state under conditions of incomplete feudalization was determined by the hypertrophy of military functions amid a constant threat from nomadic peoples, and later from the Golden Horde and its successors. The strengthening of the role of the centralized state was also determined by the need to protect scattered communities and to control them during the long era of colonization of vast forest and forest-steppe expanses. As a result, Russia did not develop the phenomenon of free cities with free, self-governing corporate estates (guilds, craft associations, universities). The urban (posad) population, in terms of its socioeconomic position, was for the most part tiaglo-bound — dependent on a particular feudal lord (or the tsar) and bearing the corresponding feudal obligations (tiaglo). The estate rights even of the dominant estate — the nobility — were not fixed until the second half of the 18th century.
On the second edition of serfdom: In the strict sense, the "second edition of serfdom" in Central and Eastern Europe was "second" only in relation to Western Europe. In these territories themselves, there was no question of any repetition of forms of serf dependence that had already existed and disappeared; rather, a process of intensified initial enserfment of the peasants was taking place (at a time when serfdom was decomposing in Western Europe). This was determined by a relative shortage of labor combined with a relatively greater possibility of colonizing free lands, which pushed landowners toward forcibly keeping peasants on their land. Moreover, the features of seigniorial reaction present in Western Europe were unable to develop into anything resembling a "second edition of serfdom," because this tendency was opposed by a well-developed urban economic order resting on a personally free and corporately organized population. In Central Europe the urban order was relatively weaker, while in Eastern Europe the phenomenon of free cities barely developed at all. The second edition of serfdom (extending all the way to the development of semi-slave forms of personal dependence) resulted, in Russia, in corvée and dues in kind remaining the main forms of feudal exploitation as late as the mid-19th century. The growth of manufacturing production in the 18th century occurred to a considerable extent in the form of serf-based (possessional) manufactories (where the workers had the status of serfs bound to the manufactory or works). The gradual decomposition of personal dependence under the influence of the growing needs of commodity-economy development proceeded extremely slowly. The abolition of serfdom took the form of a "revolution from above," under conditions in which most landed estates were not yet sufficiently drawn into capitalist enterprise, and peasant farming had only just begun to shift onto the track of small-scale commodity production. As a result, post-serfdom relations between peasants and landowners developed mainly in the form of semi-feudal debt-bondage tenancy ("otrabotki," labor-service rent).
ECONOMIC SOCIAL FORMATION: characterized by the separation of production relations from social relations in general, and by the complex differentiation of the former. Within an economic social formation, production relations finally acquire the role of the determining social
relations.
ECONOMIC RELATIONS - production
relations that are
connected with the drive for the most efficient acquisition of material wealth, i.e.,
for increasing the size of this wealth while
relatively reducing the costs of
acquiring it.
MULTI-SECTORAL STRUCTURE (mnogoukladnost) — the combination, within
one mode of production, of systems of production relations that differ qualitatively from one another, forming independent (i.e., possessing a relatively complete cycle of product reproduction and of
social relations) economic
sectors (uklady). In transitional societies, a multi-sectoral structure appears as a combination, within
a single national economy, of sectors
resting on different modes of production.
ESTATES (SOSLOVIYA) — the form in which class division of society is expressed under pre-capitalist modes of production. Estate
groups were characterized by differing legal status; they were, as a rule, hereditary and relatively closed in character.
ALLOD — the hereditary allotment of a peasant-commune member, possessing the property of
alienability — the transition from a conditional
holding sanctioned by the commune, to a
conditional holding sanctioned by
a private magnate or by the church.
BENEFICE — the granting of land (originally on behalf of royal power, and later also of great landed magnates) into personal conditional holding (usually on condition
of performing military or military-administrative service).
FIEF (LEN, FEOD) — the hereditary holding
of a plot of land on condition of performing military
or military-administrative service.
VASSALAGE — a system of relations within
the dominant class (feudal lords), involving the vassal's performance of service to his overlord in exchange for the latter's protection.
patronage
PATRIMONIAL IMMUNITY — the right to exercise the full range of administrative-legal functions on the territory of a benefice.
POMESTIE (IN RUS) - a land grant to a nobleman at his place of service (hence
the name). It was personal in character and could not be sold, passed on by inheritance,
etc., which brought it close to the Western European benefice. Only in the 17th century did the difference between pomestie and votchina landholding blur, and later disappear.
VOTCHINA (IN RUS) - a hereditary land grant on condition of performing
service.
FEUDAL RENT — the basic form of
appropriation of the surplus product in feudal society through the performance by serfs of obligations in favor of the lord (in various forms — labor rent or
corvée, rent in produce or dues in kind,
money rent).
LABOR RENT (CORVÉE) - a form of
feudal rent in which the serf performed obligations in favor of the lord by
working on the lord's own estate (demesne).
RENT IN PRODUCE (DUES IN KIND) - a form of
feudal rent in which the serf performed obligations in favor of the lord by
handing over to him part of the produce
grown on his own allotment.
MONEY RENT — a form of feudal
rent in which the serf performed obligations in favor of the lord by paying him
part of his monetary income obtained
from production for the market (from
his own allotment or from outside earnings).
The conversion of feudal obligations into monetary form is called commutation.
MANUFACTORY — a large enterprise
based on the use of hand tools and on the division of labor (by product or by operation) in the production of finished goods. Characteristic of the
period from the 14th to the early 19th century. From the standpoint of
production relations, manufactories could employ either serf or
hired labor. A manufactory may be
centralized or scattered, where
dispersed small producers are subordinated to the manufactory's division of
labor by virtue of their dependence on a middleman-buyer
(who supplies raw materials and buys up finished goods), who is also often their
creditor.
PETTY BOURGEOISIE - commodity producers who run their enterprises mainly by
their own labor.
PRIMITIVE ACCUMULATION OF CAPITAL - the process of forming the historical preconditions for capitalist relations of production, expressed
in the concentration of monetary wealth at
one social pole, and the development of the separation of personally free petty commodity producers from the means of production and
sources of subsistence — at the
other. This creates the possibility
of transforming money into capital through the hiring
and exploitation of free labor power.
ABSOLUTISM (ABSOLUTE MONARCHY) -
a form of the feudal state in the period
of late feudalism. It is characterized by com
plete political centralization —
the concentration of legislative and executive power in the hands of the monarch, relying on a subordinate ramified
bureaucratic apparatus. A unified state judicial, police, and fiscal system arises. The army,
formerly assembled from a combination of feudal retinues and the popular militia,
is replaced by a standing royal army.
MERCANTILISM - the economic policy of European states in the early period
of the development of capitalism. It was oriented
primarily toward the accumulation of money (pre
cious metals) in the hands of the royal
treasury. To this end, a policy was pursued of
an active trade balance, trade pro
tectionism (higher duties on im
ports), the encouragement of manufacturing
industry, the founding of monopoly foreign
trade companies, and trade and colonial expansion. This policy led to clashes
among the European powers in the struggle for trade
and industrial predominance.
Часть 1 Chapter 6 6.4.2. Classical (Developed) Feudalism
Часть 2 6.4.4. Peculiarities of Russian Feudalism - Chapter 6 6.4.2. Classical
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