Lecture
Это окончание невероятной информации про условия сочетаемости слов.
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tired 'to be weary', be surprised 'to be astonished' etc., in which the grammatical centre is the first component while the semantic centre is the second. This class of phraseological units also includes prepositional-nominal combinations such as by heart 'from memory', in time 'punctually', for good 'permanently', which are equivalent to adverbs or connective words and are characterized by the absence of a grammatical centre altogether.
Phraseological units that have two or more semantically full-weight elements are called two-top and many-top units. These include attributive-nominal phraseological units such as black art 'magic, sorcery', common sense 'sound practical judgement', best man 'a groomsman at a wedding', etc., which are equivalent to nouns. This class also includes verb-substantive two-top phraseological units equivalent to verbs, such as take the floor 'to rise and speak', catch cold 'to become ill with a cold', go to bed 'to retire for the night', phraseological repetitions of various types (now or never 'at this critical moment or not at all', up and down 'in various directions'), and adverbial many-top phraseological units (every other day 'on alternate days', every now and then 'occasionally, from time to time').
Phraseological units, thus, turn out to be a rather limited class in the classification of A.I. Smirnitsky. However, the main shortcoming of this interesting and original classification lies not so much in the narrowness of the class of phraseological units as in the difficulty of defining them and the vulnerability of the idiomaticity criterion used by the author to distinguish traditional word-combinations from phraseological units. It is hardly possible to accept the word-combinations he cites as examples of one-top phraseological units, be tired 'fatigued', be surprised 'astonished', as idiomatic. Also disputable, in the opinion of A.V. Kunin, is the classing of combinations such as first night 'the opening performance of a play', brown bread 'bread made from unsifted flour' as phraseological units, on the grounds that they are motivated.
Yet another attempt to systematize the phraseological units of present-day English is the classification of N.N. Amosova. The author's starting point lies in treating the phraseological unit as a unit of constant context, which is why N.N. Amosova's classification came to be called contextological. The notion of constant context can serve, in the author's view, as a reliable criterion for differentiating phraseological units both from variable (i.e. free) combinations and from phenomena of stylistic word-collocability, from traditional descriptive word-combinations with fixed nomination, etc. In other words, at the heart of the definition of phraseological units lies one of their basic properties – stability. At the same time, the author does not ignore the semantic specificity of phraseological units, which becomes the basis for an internal division of the phraseological stock into two main classes: the class of phrasemes and the class of idioms.
A phraseme – this is a unit of constant context in which the meaning of the semantically realized word is phraseologically bound, as is observed in word-combinations such as black frost 'frost without snow', white day 'a happy, lucky day', knit (one's) brows 'to frown', grind (one's) teeth 'to gnash the teeth in anger', etc. Phrasemes always have a two-member structure; the variability of the key word is usually restricted, although possible. A change in the component with the phraseologically bound meaning, however, leads to the emergence of synonymous phrasemes. For example, sleeping partner – dormant partner 'a partner who takes no part in running the business', piper's tale – traveller's tale 'an unreliable, tall story', Christian name – first name 'a personal name (as opposed to a surname)', etc.
Idioms, as defined by N.N. Amosova, – are units of constant context characterized by a holistic meaning, in which none of the components has a phraseologically bound meaning dependent on its connection with the other components. Such are the phraseological units dark horse 'a person of uncertain reputation', mare's nest 'nonsense, an absurdity', the day after the fair 'too late', etc.
Both phrasemes and idioms allow for two varieties of constant context, which the author calls movable and fixed constant context. A movable context permits variation in the morphological shaping of materially identical units, a change in their order, and even the introduction of variable components (e.g., they are pulling my leg 'they are fooling me' and I was having my leg pulled 'I was being fooled', the apple of (my, his, her, mother's) eye 'the thing most dear (to someone)', a prick of conscience – pricks of conscience 'pangs of conscience', etc.). The structure of a fixed context is frozen.
The classes of phraseological units named above, together with their subclasses, strictly speaking, make up the only substantial content of their contextological classification. One could choose, N.N. Amosova notes, other principles for systematizing phraseological units: taking into account their grammatical structure, grammatical function, and other parameters, but the result of this is a detailed and cumbersome system, a sort of inventory list, turning into an aimless, self-contained classification.
N.N. Amosova's classification, as we can see, is close to V.V. Vinogradov's classification in that the author, like her predecessor, uses two criteria – stability and idiomaticity – to distinguish types of phraseological units, neither of which, however, is a reliable basis for differentiating free word-combinations with narrow collocability, stylistic formations with a metaphorical meaning, etc., from phraseological units proper. However strict and objective the principles of constant context may be, they still allow for the variability of components, and with it bring doubts as to the status of one word-combination or another. To restrict phraseology to units of fixed context alone would mean unjustifiably narrowing its scope.
One of the more recent classifications, whose author sought to overcome the shortcomings of the classifications set out above and to take into account both the structural and the semantic features of phraseological units, is the classification of phraseological units proposed by A.V. Kunin. In it, phraseological units are divided into classes, subclasses, and categories. Classes are distinguished on the basis of the function performed by a phraseological unit in the process of communication, as determined by its structural-semantic properties: 1) nominative phraseological units; 2) nominative-communicative phraseological units; 3) phraseological units of neither a nominative nor a communicative character; 4) communicative phraseological units. The first class includes word-combinations, as well as turns of phrase with a predicative structure (as the crow flies 'by the shortest, most direct route') and partly predicative structures such as see how the land lies 'to see how matters stand', ships that pass in the night 'fleeting, chance encounters'. Irrespective of their structure, all units of this type denote some extralinguistic entity (an object, phenomenon, process, etc.). The second class is represented by turns of phrase such as break the ice 'to relieve tension, take the first step (in relations between people)' – the ice is broken, i.e. verbal word-combinations that turn into sentences when the verb is used in the passive voice. The third class comprises interjectional word-combinations and a small number of interjections with a predicative structure. These are phraseological units serving to express feelings and volitional impulses. They possess neither a nominative nor a communicative function, but as stable formations they are elements of the language. Examples of interjectional phraseological units include the phraseological units by George! 'an oath of mild surprise or emphasis', Queen Anne's dead! 'that is old news', a fine (nice, pretty) kettle of fish 'a muddle, an awkward state of affairs', etc. Phraseological units belonging to the fourth class are represented by any type of sentence except the nominative and interjectional ones. Communicative phraseological units include sayings and proverbs, the structure of which is similar to that of sentences.
The classes of phraseological units named above are divided into subclasses, distinguished on the basis of the closedness or non-closedness of the structure of a phraseological unit, i.e. on the basis of the variability or non-variability of the components of a phraseological unit. Non-closed structures have lexical variants, allow the normative insertion of variable elements into their composition, can be transformed into a sentence, etc. Closed structures are characterized by the absence of such possibilities; they are marked by constant components and constant dependencies. The introduction of this parameter into the classification entails its considerable complication, since the phraseological units of present-day English display a great variety of structural types and dependencies. Thus the author distinguishes constant, constant-variant, constant-variable, constant-variant-variable, and transformational dependencies of components and, correspondingly, structural types of phraseological units.
Alongside the structural parameters, A.V. Kunin also introduces semantic ones – the presence of full or partial reinterpretation, and on this basis a type of phraseological meaning: holistic, separative-holistic, partially reinterpreted, separative partially reinterpreted (their definitions are given above). Taking into account the type of connection and the type of meaning, categories are distinguished within the subclasses. The introduction of this parameter complicates the classification still further, and the result is that a classification aimed at systematizing and covering all types of phraseological units of present-day English turns out to be extremely cumbersome, complex, and uneconomical. As an example, let us give a description of the simplest class – class III – interjectional phraseological units with a holistic meaning.
SUBCLASS A
idioms
Closed interjectional phraseological units with a holistic meaning and a constant dependency of components (phraseological units with a holistic interjectional meaning: m 1 c 3 d l)
STRUCTURAL TYPES
1. Interjectional phraseological units consisting of one notional and one function word, such as by George! by Jove!
2. Interjectional phraseological units consisting of notional words:
a) phraseological units consisting only of common nouns: hear, hear! sakes alive!
b) phraseological units consisting of proper nouns: Jesus Christ!
3. Phraseological units consisting of notional and function words: by the Lord Harry!
4. Phraseological units with a predicative structure: draw it mild! hold your horses!
SUBCLASS B
NON-CLOSED INTERJECTIONAL PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
Fully reinterpreted interjectional phraseological units with a constant-variant dependency of components (phraseological units with a separative-holistic interjectional constant-variant meaning: m 2 c 3 d 2)
1. my eye! = my eyes!
2. Well, I never did!= Well, I never!
+Other classes, especially the first among them, are far more complex in structure. Thus the all-embracing character of the classification developed by A.V. Kunin comes into conflict with the basic requirements imposed on any classification. In fairness, it should be noted that the author does not exclude other classifications and believes that such a complex phenomenon as phraseology cannot be fully covered by a single classification.
The sources of origin of phraseological units in present-day English are extremely varied. A.V. Kunin, who devoted a special monograph to this question, divides English phraseological units by their origin into three main groups:
1) genuinely English, 2) borrowed from foreign languages, and 3) borrowed from the American variant of English.
For the most part, phraseological units in English are native. Many of them reflect the traditions, customs, and beliefs of the English people, as well as various realia and facts of English history. Such, for example, are the phraseological units sit above the salt 'to occupy a high position in society', sit below the salt 'to occupy a modest social position', an aunt Sally 'a target of attack or abuse; a false argument put forward in order to be knocked down later', put smb. in the cart 'to put someone in a difficult position', etc. The first of the examples given are connected with the old English custom of placing the salt-cellar in the middle of the table and seating noble guests at the upper end of the table, while lesser guests, poor relations, and servants sat at the lower end. The phraseological unit an aunt Sally is based on the folk game "Aunt Sally", which consisted in knocking a clay pipe out of the mouth of a wooden female head mounted on a post, from a certain distance, using a bat. The word cart was used to denote the cart in which criminals were taken to the place of execution or driven through the town in disgrace, and this was the starting point for the reinterpretation of the expression put smb. in the cart.
The belief that the position of the heavenly bodies influences a person's fate gave rise to the following English phraseological units: be born under a lucky star 'to be born lucky', bless one's stars 'to be grateful for good fortune', curse one's stars 'to rail against fate', believe in one's star 'to trust in personal fortune, in destiny', etc. Many phraseological units are based on proper names. For example, a Sally Lunn 'a sweet tea-bun' (named after a woman confectioner of the late 18th century), according to Cocker 'correctly, precisely, by the rules' (E. Cocker was the author of an English arithmetic textbook widely used in the 17th century), etc. A most important source of native phraseological units is professional speech: on the crest of the wave 'at the peak of happiness, success', trim one's sails to the wind 'to adapt to circumstances, go with the prevailing trend', etc. – of nautical origin, armed at all points 'fully armed', spike smb.'s guns 'to foil hostile plans laid against one', draw a bow at a venture 'to do something at random, on the off-chance' – of military and sporting origin.
Many native English phraseological units – of literary origin, and first place by number of phraseological units that have entered the English language is held by the works of Shakespeare. The phraseological units to one's heart's content 'as much as one likes, to full satisfaction' (from the play "The Merchant of Venice"), cakes and ale 'carefree merrymaking, enjoyment of life', midsummer madness 'utter derangement, sheer folly' (from "Twelfth Night"), etc. go back to Shakespeare. The authors of the phraseological units a skeleton in the cupboard 'a family trouble kept hidden from outsiders', the dark continent 'the dark continent, Africa', cool as a cucumber 'perfectly unruffled', the British Lion 'Great Britain' were Thackeray, Stanley, Gay, and Dryden. The phraseological unit what will Mrs.Grundy say? 'what will people say' is attributed to Thomas Morton, be under smb.'s thumb 'henpecked', a pretty kettle of fish 'a fine mess, a nice how-do-you-do' – to Samuel Richardson, catch smb. red-handed 'to catch someone in the act' – to Walter Scott. Some phraseological units are connected with the characters of literary works: for example, Man Friday 'Friday, a loyal and devoted servant', a Sherlock Holmes 'Sherlock Holmes, an educated, resourceful detective', etc.
Literary works written in other languages become the most important source of borrowed phraseological units. Among them, the most significant to mention are the Bible, ancient mythology, and ancient literature. Of biblical origin, for example, are the phraseological units cast pearls before swine 'to cast pearls before swine', the root of all evil 'the root of all evil, the love of money', daily bread 'daily bread, the means of subsistence' and many others. The bed of Procrustes 'a Procrustean bed', the golden age 'the golden age', Augean stables 'the Augean stables; a neglected, filthy place', between Scylla and Charybdis 'between Scylla and Charybdis; in a hopeless situation', etc. - are examples of the reinterpretation of expressions from ancient sources.
Many English phraseological units are borrowed from ancient Roman literature: the golden mean 'the golden mean' (Horace), a snake in the grass 'a treacherous, hidden enemy' (Virgil). Fairy tales of various peoples and authors are likewise one of the sources of borrowed phraseological units: an ugly duckling 'an ugly duckling' (from the tale of the ugly duckling by H.C. Andersen), Aladdin's lamp 'the magic lamp of Aladdin', etc.
Literary works also play a significant role for the group of phraseological units borrowed from the American variant of English. Among them we find phraseological units such as the last of the Mohicans 'the last of the Mohicans, the last survivor of a group' (F. Cooper), the call of the wild 'the call of the wild, the allure of untouched nature' (J. London), smoke the pipe of peace 'to smoke the pipe of peace, to make peace' (H. Longfellow), etc.
We have dwelt in such detail on the origin of phraseological units because the equivalence of phraseological units across different languages is often a consequence of the commonality of their origin, and, conversely, the absence of an equivalent phraseological unit in one language or another is dictated by the specific nature of its source. Naturally, the greatest degree of equivalence is found among borrowed phraseological units. Phraseological units of biblical origin, from ancient mythology, from Greek and Roman literature, occur not only in English but also in Russian, French, German, and other languages, representing calques of their prototypes. Cf., for example, Eng. Pyrrhic victory, Rus. пиррова победа, Fr. la victoire à la Pyrrhus, Germ. Pyrrhussieg, Sp. victoria Pirrica; Eng. Pandora's box, Rus. ящик Пандоры, Fr. la boîte de Pandore, Germ. die Pandorabüchse, Sp. la caja de Pandora, etc. Combinations common in origin may likewise occur across different languages among borrowings from literary works, fairy tales, etc. E.g., Eng. an ugly duckling – Rus. гадкий утенок, Eng. tilt at windmills – Rus. сражаться с ветряными мельницами, Eng. one's place in the sun – Rus. место под солнцем, etc.
Equivalent phraseological units are also found among native phraseological units, though their number is quite small. Cf. Eng. He laughs best who laughs last – Rus. Смеется тот, кто смеется последним; Eng. If you run after two hares, you will catch neither - Rus. За двумя зайцами погонишься – ни одного не поймаешь, Eng. Strike while the iron is hot – Rus. Куй железо, пока горячо, Eng. tie smb.'s hands – Rus. связать кому-л. руки, Eng. a turning point - Rus. поворотный пункт, Eng. be hot in one's first youth – Rus. быть не первой молодости, Eng. the last word – Rus. последнее слово etc. Among native phraseological units, the prevailing kind are those for which there exist only partially equivalent phraseological units in another language (about a third of them), or for which no analogue among the phraseological units of another language exists at all (the vast majority of such units). To the first group belong phraseological units such as one swallow does not make a summer 'a single favourable sign does not by itself guarantee success', sell a pig in a poke 'to sell something without letting the buyer inspect it first', pigeon's milk 'something that does not exist, an impossibility', a bird's eye view 'a view seen from above, an overview', old birds are not to be caught with chaff 'experienced people cannot be fooled by simple tricks', kill two birds with one stone 'to achieve two aims with a single action', and many others. The images underlying them are quite close, although they differ across languages. The second group is made up of phraseological units such as the bird in one's bosom 'a secret', teach a pig to play on a flute 'to attempt something utterly futile', let the cat out of the bag 'to give away a secret, to blurt something out', win hands down 'to win easily, without effort', fly off the handle 'to fly into a sudden rage', go about with one's head in the air 'to give oneself airs, to be conceited' and others. Translating them presents the greatest difficulty, since a descriptive translation or loan translation does not preserve the stylistic richness inherent in the phraseological units being translated, while finding a corresponding phraseological unit in the target language is not always possible.
a) phraseological fusions, phraseological unities, phraseological combinations;
b) idioms proper, traditional word-combinations, one-top and many-top phraseological units;
c) phrasemes, idioms.
Часть 1 Collocability of Lexical Units: Conditions and Rules. Phraseological Units and Their Classification
Часть 2 Origin and equivalence of phraseological units - Collocability of Lexical
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